nu

Lexikon der indogermanischen Partikeln und Pronominalstämme

Proto-Albanian: *nu

desc

Albanian: nu (“when”), tani (“now”), ani (“later”)

Proto-Anatolian: *nu

Hittite: 𒉡 (nu, “now, and”)

Luwian:

Cuneiform script: 𒈾𒀀𒉡𒌦 (na-a-nu-un /nānun/)

Anatolian hieroglyphic script: [Anatolian hieroglyphic needed] (awa-); [script needed] (unu), [script needed] (unun)}

Palaic: 𒉡 (nu)

Proto-Balto-Slavic: *nu

Latgalian: niu, niule, niulen (“now”)

Lithuanian: nū, nù (“now”)

Proto-Slavic: *nъ

East Slavic:

Belarusian: ну (nu)

Belarusian: ану́ (anú), ну-ну́ (nu-nú), ну́тка (nútka), ану́тка (anútka)

Russian: ну (nu), но (no)

Russian: ну́-ка (nú-ka), ну́-кась (nú-kasʹ), ну́-кася (nú-kasja), ну-с (nu-s), ну́те (núte), ну́те-ка (núte-ka), ну́те-с (núte-s), ну-ну́ (nu-nú), ну́-ко (nú-ko), ну́-кось (nú-kosʹ), ну́-тка (nú-tka)

Carpathian Rusyn: но (no)

Carpathian Rusyn: ану (anu), ануж (anuž), ноже (nože), нуж (nuž), нуже (nuže), анужек (anužek), нолем (nolem), нолиш (nolyš), ноле (nole), оле (ole)

Ukrainian: ну (nu), но (no)

Ukrainian: ану́ (anú), ну́-бо (nú-bo), ану́бо (anúbo), ну́мо (númo), ну́мте (númte), ану́те (anúte), ну-ну́ (nu-nú), ану-ну́ (anu-nú)

South Slavic:

Bulgarian: нъ (n)

Macedonian: но (no)

Old Church Slavonic:

Old Church Slavonic: нъ (nŭ)

Old Church Slavonic: ⱀⱏ (nŭ)

Serbo-Croatian:

Cyrillic script: ну

Latin script: nu

Slovene: no

West Slavic:

Czech: no

Czech: nuže

Polish: no

Polish: ano

Slovak: no

Slovak: nuž

desctree

Proto-Celtic: *nu
Old Irish: nu (archaic adverb), no- (dummy preverb for simple verbs)
Gaulish: nu (attested in the Lezoux plate)

Proto-Germanic: *nu (“now”) (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Hellenic: *nu, *nū

desc

Ancient Greek: νῦν (nûn), νυν (nun), νυ (nu)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *nú, *nū́

Proto-Indo-Aryan: *nú, *nū́

Sanskrit: नु (nú), नू (nū́, “now”)

Proto-Iranian: *nū́

Avestan: 𐬥𐬏 (nū, “now”)

Kurdish:

Northern Kurdish: niha (nihā), noke (nōka, “now”)

Central Kurdish: ھەنووکە (hanūka, “now”)

Northern Kurdish: nika (nikā, “now”)

Proto-Italic: *nū

Latin: nūper

нꙑнѣ

Old Church Slavonic; Old Church Slavonic

yanū̃́

Southern Nuristani: *yéə-nū̃ə (“today”) (< *i-eká nūná)


de

de ~ *do (canonical)
-de ~ *-do (canonical)

Proto-Balto-Slavic: *da

Lithuanian: da-

Latvian: da

Proto-Slavic: *do (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Celtic: *de

Proto-Germanic: *ta

Proto-Hellenic: *dé

Ancient Greek: δέ (dé)

Mycenaean Greek: 𐀆 (de, “but”) (e.g. 𐀅𐀗𐀆 (da-mo-de /dāmos de/, “but the people”))

Proto-Hellenic: *-de

Ancient Greek: -δε (-de) (e.g. ὅδε (hóde), δόμονδε (dómonde), Ἀθήναζε (Athḗnaze)), δεῦρο (deûro)

Mycenaean Greek: 𐀆 (de, “towards”) (e.g. 𐀓𐀈𐀛𐀊𐀆 (ku-do-ni-ja-de /Kudōnijān-de/), 𐀀𐀗𐀳𐀍𐀙𐀆 (a-mo-te-jo-na-de /harmoteiōna-de/, “to the wheelwright”))

Proto-Italic: *-de

Latin: -de (e.g. quamde/quande, inde, unde)

⇒ Proto-Italic: *kʷomde (“when”)

Oscan: 𐌐𐌞𐌍 (pún), 𐌐𐌖𐌍 (pun); 𐌐𐌖𐌍𐌖𐌌 (punum) (< *kʷomdum)

Umbrian: 𐌐𐌖𐌍𐌄 (pune), 𐌐𐌖𐌍𐌉 (puni)

Possibly related to *ád (“to”). Compare a similar relationship between *pó and *ap, both variants of *apó (“away”).

with instrumental suffix *-h₁; see there for further descendants

Emphatic or contrastive particle, and, but


me

Proto-Albanian:

Albanian: me

in the middle of, near, by, around, with

mé-dʰi

with, among; see there for further descendants


per

Proto-Balto-Slavic: *per

Lithuanian: per, per-

Proto-Slavic: *per, *per- (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Italic: *per

Latin: per

Proto-Germanic: *firi- (see there for further descendants)

Hellenic:

Ancient Greek: περί (perí)

Indo-Iranian:

Indo-Aryan:

Sanskrit: परि (pari)

Iranian:

Avestan: 𐬞𐬀𐬌𐬭𐬌 (paⁱri)


ní

Proto-Armenian:

Old Armenian: ն- (n-) (as in նստիմ (nstim, “to sit down”))

Old Armenian: նի- (ni-)

Proto-Balto-Slavic:

⇒ Proto-Slavic: *nizъ (< *ní ǵʰi, with long *i from *nicь) (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Celtic: *ni-

Old Irish: ne-

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *ní (see there for further descendants)

looking down; see there for further descendants


kú

>? Proto-Albanian: *ku

Albanian: ku (“where”) (or from *kú-dʰe)

Proto-Anatolian: *ku (“where? when?”)

q

+ /-(š)šan/, from <i class="Latn mention" lang="ine-pro">*sóm</i>

⇒ Hittite: [Term?] (/kuššan/, “when?”) (+ /-(š)šan/, from *sóm)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *ku

Proto-Indo-Aryan: *ku

Sanskrit: कु (ku) (as in कुत्र (kútra, “whereto”))

Possibly from *kʷ- and related to *kʷís (“who? what?”).

کو

Middle Persian: [Term?] (/kū/, “where; (so) that”)

ուր

>? Old Armenian: ուր (ur, “where”) (or from *kú-tre or *kú re)


úd

Proto-Balto-Slavic: *ū́

Proto-Slavic: *vy- (“out”, pref) (< Winter's law < *ud-) (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Celtic: *ud- (pref.)

Old Irish: od-

desc

Proto-Germanic: *ūt (“out, outward”, adverb) (lengthened due to monosyllabicity) (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Hellenic: *u

Ancient Greek: ὑ- (hu-, pref.), ὑ (hu, prep..)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *ud- (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Balto-Slavic: *uźLatvian: uzLithuanian: užProto-Slavic: *vъz

uz

out (of); prep.; see there for further descendants

utˢčáH

above, upwards; see there for further descendants

ū̆sque

all the way, up to; see there for further descendants

úd-er-o-s

abdomen, stomach; deadjectival of original superlative

utˢtamás

*ud-tm̥m-ó-s (“highest, most outer”, superl.)

highest, most elevated; see there for further descendants


péri

>? Proto-Albanian: *per(i)

q

Albanian: për (or from *pér, or borrowed from Latin per)

Proto-Celtic: *ɸeri-

Proto-Hellenic:

Ancient Greek: περί (perí), πέρ (pér) (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *pári

Proto-Indo-Aryan: *pári

Sanskrit: परि (pári) (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Iranian: *pári

desctree

Avestan: 𐬞𐬀𐬌𐬭𐬌 (paⁱri)
→ Persian: پیراـ (pirâ-, “peri-”, prefix)

Kurdish:

Northern Kurdish: ber (“in front”)

Central Kurdish: بەر (ber, “in front”)

desc

Old Persian: [Term?] (/pariy/, “around, about”)

>? Proto-Italic:

q

or from <i class="Latn mention" lang="ine-pro">*pér</i>

Latin: per (or from *pér) (see there for further descendants)

Probably from *per- + *-i (locative suffix).


upó

Proto-Celtic: *uɸo

desctree

Old Irish: fo, fu, fú
Irish: faoi
Manx: fo
Scottish Gaelic: fo

Proto-Germanic: *ub (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Hellenic:

Ancient Greek: ὑπό (hupó)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *úpa, *upa-

Proto-Indo-Aryan: *úpa, *upa-

Sanskrit: उप (úpa), उप- (upa-)

Hindi: उप- (up-)

Proto-Italic: *supo (see there for further descendants)

Tocharian B: spe

Possibly from *h₁ewp-, whence also Hittite [script needed] (u-up-zi, “to rise (of the sun)”); but the verb could have come from the adverb instead. Probably with allative suffix *-o.

cog

úas

Proto-Celtic: *ouxsos (from full grade); Old Irish


pós

Proto-Balto-Slavic: *pás

Lithuanian: pas (“to”)

Proto-Hellenic: *pós

desc

Ancient Greek: πός (pós, “in accordance with?”) (attested in Arcadian and Pisidian)

Thought to be related to Proto-Indo-European *h₁epi (“at the back, on”) in meaning and to Proto-Indo-European *h₂pó (“away”) in form. However, dialectal Greek evidence points to the absence of laryngeals, at least in late PIE.
Dunkel gives the two meanings ("afterwards" vs. "by, at") as unrelated.

ըստ

*pós-ti (with the ablative marker *-ti encountered also in *h₂énti) or *pós-dʰi; Old Armenian

pohja

→? Proto-Finno-Permic: *pošja (“~ back”)

पश्चा

following; see there for further descendants


éti

Armenian:

(?) Old Armenian: -է (-ē)

Proto-Balto-Slavic: *ati (from *h₁óti, unless from *h₂éti)

Lithuanian: at- (“back, away”)

Latvian: at- (“back away”)

Old Prussian: et-, at-

Proto-Slavic: *otъ, *i (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Celtic: *ati-

Gaulish: ate-

Proto-Brythonic: *ad-

Cornish: as-

Welsh: ad-

desctree

Old Irish: aith-, ath- (broad form)
Irish: ath-
Manx: aa-
Scottish Gaelic: ath-

Proto-Germanic: *idi, *idi- (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Hellenic:

Ancient Greek: ἔτι (éti, “yet”)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *áti

Proto-Indo-Aryan: *áti

Sanskrit: अति (áti) (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Iranian: *áti

Younger Avestan: 𐬀𐬌𐬙𐬌 (aⁱti)

Old Persian: 𐎠𐎫𐎹 (a-t-y /atiy/)

Proto-Italic: *et

Latin: et (“and”) (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Tocharian: *āté

Tocharian B: ate

Tocharian:

Tocharian B: -ṣ

De Vaan proposes an old locative singular of *h₁et-, reflected in Sanskrit अत् (at, “to go”), as he explains “Originally used to add something to a previous utterance, or to indicate the sequence of different actions”. Compare *h₂énti and *h₁épi/*h₁ópi for similar derivations of particles in *-i. Beekes and Derksen give the same etymology provided by De Vaan. Ringe, however, reconstructs it as *éti.
Alternatively, Dunkel prefers a derivation from *e- + *-ti (ablative suffix) as "from there" > "beyond".


Proto-Balto-Slavic: *au

Old Prussian: au- (“out of”)

Latvian: au- (“out of”)

Lithuanian: au- (“out of”)

Proto-Slavic: *u (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Celtic: *au (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Hellenic:

Ancient Greek: αὖ (aû) (or from zero-grade *h₂u)

desc

⇒ Ancient Greek: αὖτε (aûte, “again, on the other hand, on the contrary”)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *Hu (< *h₂u)

Proto-Indo-Aryan: *Hu

Sanskrit: उ (u)

Proto-Italic:

>? Latin: au- (“off”)

auþijaz

empty; see there for further descendants

auk

also, furthermore; see there for further descendants


h₂éd

Proto-Celtic: *ad-

Proto-Germanic: *at, *at- (see there for further descendants)

q

< <i class="Latn mention" lang="ine-pro">*h₂éh₁-</i>

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *HáH, *HaH- (< *h₂éh₁-)

Proto-Indo-Aryan: *HáH, *HaH-

Sanskrit: आ (ā́)

Proto-Iranian: *HáH, *HaH- > *ā, *ā-

Avestan: 𐬁 (ā)

Proto-Italic: *ad, *ad-

Latin: ad, ad-, (ap)ud (see there for further descendants)

Oscan: 𐌀𐌆 (az)

Phrygian: αδ (ad), αδ- (ad-)


Proto-Germanic: *airi (see there for further descendants)

>? Proto-Hellenic: (or < *h₂ews-er-i < *h₂ews-)

Ancient Greek: ἦρι (êri)

From *h₂ey- (“day, morning”) + *-eri (locative adverbial suffix).


h₁eǵʰs

Proto-Albanian: *its

desc

Albanian: ith (“back, backward”), ish- (“former”) (< ek's)

Proto-Albanian: *eś-

Albanian: sh-

Proto-Balto-Slavic: *iź, *iś

Latvian: iz

Lithuanian: iš

Old Prussian: is

Proto-Slavic: *jьz (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Celtic: *exs, *exs- (see there for further descendants)

>? Proto-Germanic: *eh

Proto-Hellenic: *eks, *eks-

Ancient Greek: ἐξ (ex), ἐξ- (ex-) > ἐκ (ek), ἐκ- (ek-)

Greek: εξ (ex), εξ- (ex-), εκ (ek), εκ- (ek-)

Mycenaean Greek: *eks-

⇒ Mycenaean Greek: 𐀁𐀒𐀰𐀺𐀒 (e-ko-so-wo-ko, “outside workers”)

Proto-Italic: *eɣ, *eks (see there for further descendants)

Extension of *h₁eǵʰ (“out”) with the adverbial suffix *-s.

actIrish: achManx: aghScottish Gaelic: ach

exteros

outside (of), without; see there for further descendants

ἔσχατος

>? Proto-Hellenic: *ékʰstətos (with regular superlative suffix from *-tm̥-tos)

with metathesis and simplification of the cluster

outermost, farthest, most remote, last; see there for further descendants


Proto-Anatolian:

Hittite: 𒄩𒀭𒍝 (ḫa-an-za /ḫants/, “in front”)

Proto-Armenian:

Old Armenian: ընդ (ənd, “to, at, towards, by”)

Proto-Germanic: *andi (“and, also, against”) (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Hellenic:

Ancient Greek: ἀντί (antí) (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *Hánti

Proto-Indo-Aryan: *Hánti

Vedic Sanskrit: अन्ति (ánti)

Proto-Italic: *anti

Latin: ante (see there for further descendants)

Oscan: 𐌀𐌍𐌕 (ant)

Locative singular case of the root noun *h₂énts (“forehead, front”).


pró

desctree

Proto-Anatolian: *prṓ
Hittite: 𒉺𒊏𒀀 (pa-ra-a /prā/)

Proto-Balto-Slavic: *pra

Old Prussian: pra, pro

Proto-Slavic: *pro (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Celtic: *ɸro (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Hellenic: *pró

Ancient Greek: πρό (pró) (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *prá

Proto-Indo-Aryan: *prá

Sanskrit: प्र (prá)

Proto-Iranian: *frá

Avestan:

Old Avestan: 𐬟𐬭𐬀 (fra), 𐬟𐬭𐬁 (frā)

Younger Avestan: 𐬟𐬭𐬀 (fra)

Old Persian: 𐎳𐎼 (f-r /fra/)

From *per- (“before”) + *-o (allative suffix).

suf

pra-

if not from *pro-; with *H adopted from nouns with initial laryngeal

Proto-Italic: *prōLatin: prōOscan: 𐌐𐌓

*pró-o > *prṓ (with double suffix) or *pro-h₁ (with instrumental suffix)

fram

Proto-West Germanic: *fram; Middle High German

framr

Proto-Germanic: *framaz (“forward; forthright”)

⇒ Proto-Germanic: *framjaną

Proto-Germanic: *fram (“forward, from, away”) (see there for further descendants)

to perform, promote, further; see there for further descendants

𐬟𐬭𐬀𐬙𐬀𐬭𐬀

Proto-Iranian: *frataráh; Younger Avestan

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *pratʰamásProto-Indo-Aryan: *pratʰamásSanskrit: प्रथमProto-Iranian: *fratamáhCentral Iranian:Avestan: 𐬟𐬭𐬀𐬙𐬆𐬨𐬀Northeastern Iranian:Sogdian: [script needed]Western Iranian:Southwestern Iranian:Old Persian: 𐎳𐎼𐎫𐎶𐎠Middle Persian:Manichaean script: 𐫛𐫡𐫤𐫇𐫖Book Pahlavi script: [Book Pahlavi needed]Persian: فردم→ Old Armenian: փարթամArmenian: փարթամ


ḱóm

>? Proto-Balto-Slavic: *śun

Lithuanian: sù (with unexpected depalatalization of *ś or from *sm̥-)

Proto-Slavic: *sъ(n)

Proto-Celtic: *kom-

Old Irish: com-, cummae (< *ḱóm-smiyo-)

Irish: comh-, cuma

Manx: co-

Scottish Gaelic: co-, coma

Breton: ken-

Cornish: kev-

Welsh: cyf-, cyn-

Proto-Germanic: *ga- (< *ḱó-)

Proto-Italic: *kom

Latin: cum, com-

Oscan: kúm, comono (< *ḱómno-)

Umbrian: kumne (< *ḱómno-)

Proto-Tocharian:

Tocharian B: aṅkānmi (< *ḱómno-)


h₁én

Old Albanian: ën-

Albanian: n-

Albanian: m- (before labials)

Armenian:

Old Armenian: ի (i) / յ- (y-)

Proto-Balto-Slavic: *in (< zero-grade *h₁n̥)

Old Prussian: ēn

Latvian: iekša (< *en-styā-s)

Lithuanian: į, in (dialectal)

Proto-Slavic: *vъ(n) (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Celtic: *en (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Hellenic: *en

Ancient Greek: ἐν (en)

Arcadocypriot Greek: ἰν (in)

Proto-Italic: *en (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Tocharian:

Tocharian A: -an

Tocharian B: -ne

Proto-Tocharian: *e(n)- (“intensifier”)

Tocharian A: a(n)-

Tocharian B: e(n)-

>? Proto-Slavic: *ędro

kernel, core; see there for further descendants

अण्ड

egg, testicle; see there for further descendants

eni

*h₁én-i (< *h₁én + *-i (locative suffix))

⇒ Primitive Irish: ᚔᚅᚔᚌᚓᚅᚐ

daughter; see there for further descendants

enî

Proto-Iranian: *HániHkah; Northern Kurdish

enech

Primitive Irish: ᚔᚅᚓᚊᚐᚌᚂᚐᚄ (ineqa-glas); Old Irish

𐌄𐌔

? *h₁én-s (or later independent creations as counterpart to *h₁eǵʰs)

instran

Proto-Balto-Slavic: *intró (“liver”); Old Prussian

ę̄trò

liver; see there for further descendants

अन्त्र

intestine; see there for further descendants

under (the surface); see there for further descendants

⇒ Proto-Slavic: *vъnǭtrьnъ

⇒ Proto-Slavic: *vъnǫtrь (“inside, within”) (*vъn- (“in”) + *ǫtrь) (see there for further descendants)


Proto-Albanian:

Albanian: mbi (Tosk)

Albanian: mby, Albanian: my (Gheg)

Proto-Armenian:

Old Armenian: եւ (ew)

Armenian: եւ (ew)

Proto-Balto-Slavic:

q

as in <i class="Latn mention" lang="prg">ebimmai</i>

Old Prussian: ep-, eb- (as in ebimmai)

Proto-Celtic: *eɸi-

⇒ Old Irish: ía-daid (“to close”)

Proto-Germanic: *bi (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Hellenic: *epí

Ancient Greek: ἐπί (epí)

Greek: επί (epí)

Mycenaean Greek: 𐀁𐀠 (e-pi)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *Hápi (see there for further descendants)

Messapic: epi-, ipi-, eipei-

Would be locative case of *h₁eps (from *h₁ep-), which could mean "back", with the "on" sense referring to pack animals or riding.


sēmi

desctree

Proto-Germanic: *sēmi-
Proto-West Germanic: *sāmi-, *sām-
Old English: sām-
Middle English: sam-
English: sam
Old Saxon: sām-
Old Dutch: sām-
Old High German: sāmi-

Proto-Hellenic: *hēmi-

Ancient Greek: ἡμι- (hēmi-)
Greek: ημι- (imi-)
→ English: hemi-
→ French: hémi-
→ Spanish: hemi-

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *sāmí

Proto-Indo-Aryan: *sāmí

Sanskrit: सामि (sāmí)

Proto-Italic: *sēmi-

Latin: sēmi-, sē-, sēm-, sin-
→ English: semi-, semi
→ French: semi-
→ Italian: semi-
→ Portuguese: semi-
→ Spanish: semi-

From *sem- (“one”) + locative suffix *-i. The meaning developed from "(in) one" > "one of the two" > "half".


déḱs

Stüber suggests *deḱs- continues the *s stem noun *déḱos (“that which is proper”), from *deḱ- (“take, perceive”).


Proto-Albanian: *apa
Albanian: pa

>? Proto-Anatolian: (< *h₂opo)

Hittite: 𒀀𒀊𒉺 (āppa)

Luwian: 𒀀𒀊𒉺 (āppa)

Proto-Germanic: *ab (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Hellenic: *apó

Ancient Greek: ἀπό (apó), ἀπ’ (ap’) — apocopic, ἀφ’ (aph’) — apocopic, before vowel with rough breathing, ἀπύ (apú) — Aeolic, Arcadocypriot
Greek: από (apó)

Mycenaean Greek: 𐀀𐀢 (a-pu)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *Hapá (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Italic: *ab

Latin: ab (see there for further descendants)

Messapic: 𐌀𐌐𐌀 (apa, “from, out of, by”)

afër

⇒ Proto-Albanian: *apsera (< *h₂ep-s-ero-); Albanian


h₂pó

Proto-Balto-Slavic: *pa

Latvian: pa

Lithuanian: pa-

Old Prussian: pa-, po-

Proto-Slavic: *po (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Celtic: *ɸo

Proto-Brythonic: *o (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Italic: *po

Latin: po-


Proto-Armenian:

Old Armenian: ան- (an-)

Proto-Albanian:

Albanian: anë, -aj

Proto-Italic: *ana-Oscan: ανα-Umbrian: 𐌀𐌍-

onṣä

above; see there for further descendants


h₁é

Ancient Greek: ἐ- (e-) (contracts with vowel-initial verbs)

Greek: έ- (é-)

Old Armenian: ե- (e-), է- (ē-) (contracted form)

Phrygian: ε- (e-)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *Há- (see there for further descendants)


dwís

Proto-Albanian: *dwis

Albanian: dysh

Proto-Germanic: *twis

Middle Low German: twis

Middle High German: zwis

Proto-Germanic: *twiz- (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Hellenic: *dwís

Ancient Greek: δίς (dís)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *dwíš

Proto-Indo-Aryan: *dwíṣ

Sanskrit: द्विस् (dvís)

Proto-Iranian: *dwíš

Younger Avestan: 𐬠𐬌𐬱 (biš)

Proto-Italic: *dwis

Latin: bis

From *dwóh₁ ("two") by analogy with *trís ("thrice").

Early Proto-Albanian: *dis- (borrowing from Latin dis- is also possible)


Proto-Albanian: *ambi

Albanian: më, mbë

Proto-Celtic: *ambi, *ambi- (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Germanic: *umbi (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Hellenic: *ampʰí (see there for further descendants)

Ancient Greek: ἀμφί (amphí)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *Habʰí (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Italic: *amβi (see there for further descendants)

Latin: ambi-

Following Jasasoff, usually claimed to be from earlier *h₂n̥t-bʰi, a petrified variant of the instrumental plural *h₂n̥t-mís of *h₂ént-s (“forehead, front”). Compare *h₂m̥-bʰ-óh₁ (“both”).
However, as the semantic development of "with foreheads" to "around" is questionable, Dunkel instead derives *án-bʰi (“around”) from *án (“on the other side”) + *-bʰi (adverbial locative suffix). Sihler is also skeptical of Jasanoff's proposal.


wí

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *wí

Proto-Indo-Aryan: *wí

desc

Sanskrit: वि (ví, “apart, asunder, through”)

Sanskrit: वि- (ví-, prefix to express division, distinction)

Proto-Iranian: *wí

Avestan: 𐬬𐬍 (vī, “separate, apart, asunder, through”)

Khotanese: [script needed] (bi-), [script needed] (gva-)

Bactrian: οι- (oi- /wi-/)

Khwarezmian: وـ (w- /*wi-/)

Sogdian: (/wi-/)

Sogdian script: [script needed] (w-), [script needed] (wy-)

Manichaean script: 𐫇- (w-), 𐫇𐫏- (wy-)

Syriac script: ܘ- (w-), ܘܝ- (wy-)

Parthian: (/wi-/, “apart”)

Inscriptional Parthian script: 𐭅𐭉- (wy-), 𐭅- (w-)

Manichaean script: 𐫇𐫏- (wy-)

Old Persian: 𐎻𐎡 (vi-i /vi-/)

Middle Persian: (/wi-/, “apart”)

Manichaean script: 𐫇𐫏- (wy-)

Inscriptional Pahlavi script: 𐭥𐭩- (wy-), 𐭥- (w-)

Book Pahlavi script: [Book Pahlavi needed] (wy-), [Book Pahlavi needed] (w-)

Psalter Pahlavi script: 𐮅𐮈- (wy-), 𐮅- (w-)

Pazend script: 𐬬𐬀- (va-)

विना

without, except; see there for further descendants

⇒? Latin: vitricus

*wí-tero-s (“further apart”, with *-teros)

wiþrą

toward, against; compared to, among; see there for further descendants

>? Proto-Slavic: *vъtorъ

second; see there for further descendants


péruti

Proto-Armenian:

desctree

Old Armenian: հերու (heru)
Armenian: հերու (heru)

Proto-Balto-Slavic:

Latvian: pȩ̃rn

Lithuanian: pérnai

Proto-Celtic: *ɸeruti, *ɸerutam
Old Irish: uraid, urid
Middle Irish: uraid
Irish: anuraidh
Manx: nurree
Scottish Gaelic: an-uiridh

Proto-Germanic: *ferudi (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Hellenic: *péruti

Ancient Greek: πέρυσι (pérusi)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *parut (see there for further descendants)

From the locative singular form of a compound of *per (“around, through”) + *wet- (“year”), literally “on the other side of a year”.


dʰǵʰyés

Proto-Albanian: *de (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Hellenic: *kʰtʰés

desc

Ancient Greek: χθές (khthés), ἐχθές (ekhthés) (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *ȷ́ʰyás (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Germanic: *gēz (see there for further descendants)

Possibly from *dʰeǵʰ- (“day”), whence perhaps Proto-Germanic *dagaz. The suffix is uncertain but perhaps a form of (what would become) the comparative *-is-, as if literally “day-er”, effectively contrasting it with the current day. However, as de Vaan notes, it is unclear whether *-y- is originally part of the cluster, being found only in Indo-Iranian. If not, it may be analogical in that branch, and the original *dʰǵʰés would simply be the genitive singular to a root noun *dʰéǵʰs.
Alternatively, some suggest that the cluster *dʰǵʰ- may have come from earlier *ǵʰd- (compare *dʰéǵʰōm for a theoretically similar case) such that the original PIE form might have contained *dey- (“day”) and the demonstrative pronoun stem *ǵʰe- (or even earlier *gʰe-), thus *ǵʰe-dyés (“on that day”, gen.sg.). In that case, it would be a fitting counterpart to pre-Indo-Iranian *h₁e-dyé(s) and *sm̥-dyés, whence Sanskrit अद्य (adyá, “today”) and सद्यः (sadyáḥ, “immediately”, literally “on the same day”) respectively. However, the existence and function of *ǵʰ- along with the phonetic development of the cluster remain unclear.
Yet another proposal is made by Dunkel, who reconstructs the primary adverb as *ǵʰés and explains Sanskrit ह्यस् (hyás) as from *ǵʰs-dʰí (with locative suffix) + *és.

gdesi

*dʰǵʰyés-i (innovative locative singular)


>? Proto-Albanian: *enter

q

or borrowed from Latin <i class="Latn mention" lang="la">inter</i>

Albanian: ndër (or borrowed from Latin inter)

Proto-Celtic: *enter (see there for further descendants)

desc

< h₁n̥tér; conflated with <i class="Latn mention" lang="ine-pro">*h₁n̥dʰér</i> (“under”)

Proto-Germanic: *under (< h₁n̥tér; conflated with *h₁n̥dʰér (“under”)) (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *Hantár (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Italic: *ənter (< h₁n̥tér) (see there for further descendants)

From *h₁én + *-tér (constrastive suffix).


h₁n̥dó

Proto-Anatolian: *ʔn̩dṓ

Hittite: 𒀭𒁕 (an-da /anda/)

Luwian: 𒀀𒀭𒋫 (a-an-ta /ānta/)

Lycian: 𐊑𐊗𐊁 (ñte)

Proto-Italic: *(e)ndo (see there for further descendants)

desctree

Proto-Celtic: *ande-
Proto-Brythonic: *an-
Breton: an-
Cornish: an-
Middle Welsh: an-
Welsh: an-, af-
Old Irish: ind-
Gaulish: ande-

desc

Proto-Tocharian: *ene (“inside, within”) (possibly)

Tocharian A: ane

Tocharian B: eneṃ

From *h₁én (“in”) and *do (demonstrative particle, "towards").


upér

Proto-Celtic: *uɸer (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Germanic: *uber (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Hellenic: *hupér

Ancient Greek: ὑπέρ (hupér)

⇒ Proto-Italic: *super

Latin: super

Oscan: 𐌔𐌖𐌐𐌓𐌖 (supru, abl.sg)

Umbrian: 𐌔𐌖𐌐𐌄𐌓 (super), 𐌔𐌖𐌁𐌓𐌀 (subra, adverb)

From *úp (“above”) + *-er (locative adverbial suffix). From the same root as *up-ó (“up”). For the suffix compare *n̥dʰ-ér (“under”), *kʷó-r (“where?”), *tó-r (“there”).

suf

*upéri (alternative)
*(s)upér (alternative)

ubiri

*upér-i (“over, above”, adverb) (with additional locative suffix *-i)

obaro

Proto-Germanic: *ufaraz; Old High German


h₁n̥dʰí

>? Proto-Anatolian:

Lycian: [script needed] (ẽti)

Proto-Armenian:

desc

Old Armenian: ընդ (ənd, “under (+ instr.)”)

>? Proto-Indo-Iranian: *adʰi

Proto-Indo-Aryan: *adʰi

Sanskrit: अधि (ádhi, “upper, supreme”) (with semantic reversal) (see there for further descendants)

Likely from *h₁ní (“down, downwards”) + *-dʰe (locative suffix).

af

Hadʰás

below, downwards; see there for further descendants

ette

with change of *nt to tt like possibly also in perpette

>? Latin: īmus

< *emmos < *enðmos; or from *h₂í-h₂i-mo-s


h₁n̥dʰér

Proto-Germanic: *under (conflated with *h₁entér (“between”)) (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *Hadʰári

Proto-Iranian: *Hadári (see there for further descendants)

From *h₁n̥dʰí (“under, below”) + *-ér, *-éri (innovative locative suffix) (compare the suffix in *h₂éyeri).


h₁réh₁

Petrified instrumental singular of *h₁er- (“separately, loosely”) + *-éh₁.

to separate; reanalyzed as a root; see there for further descendants


Proto-Celtic: *taras (“through”) (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *tr̥Hás (“through”) (see there for further descendants)

From *terh₂- (“to cross over, pass through”).

þurhw

through; see there for further descendants

tr̥HaćčáH

*tr̥h₂-m̥-s-kʷé (or < *tr̥h₂-es-kʷe, or *tr̥h₂-os-h₃kʷe)


énu

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *ánu

Proto-Iranian:

desc

Avestan: 𐬀𐬥𐬎 (anu, “after; corresponding to”)

Old Persian: 𐎠𐎵𐎺 (a-nu-v /anuv/)

Proto-Indo-Aryan:

Sanskrit: अनु (anu, “after, again, next”)

Proto-Italic:

Latin: in- (“after”)

Proto-Germanic: *enu (“without”)

Gothic: 𐌹𐌽𐌿 (inu)

w:Lexikon der indogermanischen Partikeln und Pronominalstämme

आनुशक्

⇒ Proto-Indo-Aryan: *ānušakš (“in sequence, in turn”)

ēnu (< < }}

without; past; along; see there for further descendants


médʰi

Proto-Germanic: *midi (see there for further descendants)

From the adverb *me (“near, by, with”) + *-dʰi (locative suffix).


Proto-Hellenic: *auhéri

desc

Ancient Greek: ἦρι (êri, “early in the morning”) (or from *h₂éyeri (“early”))

Ancient Greek: αὔριον (aúrion) (see there for further descendants)

From *h₂ews- (“to dawn, become light”) + *-ér, *-éri (innovative locative suffix).

err

>? Proto-Albanian: *ausra (“twilight”); Albanian

auštrā́ˀ

*h₂éwser-h₂ ~ *h₂usr-és (“dawn, morning”)

dawn, morning; see there for further descendants


trís

Proto-Hellenic:

Ancient Greek: τρίς (trís)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *tríš

Proto-Indo-Aryan: *tríṣ

Sanskrit: त्रिस् (trís)

Proto-Iranian:

Younger Avestan: 𐬚𐬭𐬌𐬱 (θriš)

Proto-Italic: *tris

Latin: ter

From Proto-Indo-European *tréyes (“three”).


déh₁

Proto-Celtic: *dī (“from, of”)

Proto-Brythonic: *di

Old Breton: di-

Middle Welsh: di-, ⇒ Middle Welsh: oddi (“from, out of”)

Old Irish: dí-, di

Irish: de

Manx: jeh

Scottish Gaelic: de

Proto-Hellenic: *dḗ (“to this, so far”)

desc

Ancient Greek: δή (dḗ, “indeed, now, already”)

Proto-Italic: *dē (“from”)

Faliscan: de (“from”)

Latin: dē, dē- (“from, off, without, about”)

⇒ Oscan: dat (“on the basis of, authorised by”)

Proto-Armenian:

Old Armenian: տ- (t-, negative prefix)

From *de (“to, towards”) + *-h₁ (instrumental suffix), original meaning perhaps "by means of".


préy

Proto-Anatolian:

Proto-Luwic: *prī

Luwian: 𒉺𒊑𒄿 (/pri/)

desctree

Proto-Balto-Slavic: *prei
Latgalian: pi
Latvian: prie-, pie-, pie
Lithuanian: priẽ, pri̇́e-
Old Prussian: prei
Proto-Slavic: *pri (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Italic: *prei

Old Latin: prī

⇒ Proto-Italic: *preiwos
Latin: prīvus (see there for further descendants)
Umbrian: 𐌐𐌓𐌄𐌅𐌄𐌓 (prever, abl. pl. m.)


Proto-Anatolian:

Hittite: 𒀭𒁕𒀭 (an-da-an /andan/)

Proto-Celtic: *andom

Old Irish: and
Middle Irish: ann
Irish: ann
Manx: ayn
Scottish Gaelic: ann

Proto-Hellenic: *éndon

Ancient Greek: ἔνδον (éndon) (see there for further descendants)

An accusative correspondent to *h₁n̥dó (“into”). Alternatively, Dunkel gives *én + *dóm (“house”).


tóti

Proto-Italic: *toti

Latin: tot

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *táti

Proto-Indo-Aryan: *táti

Sanskrit: तति (táti)

Proto-Tocharian:

desc

Tocharian B: tot (“so much, so many, so far”) (or from *toti u)


kʷóti

Proto-Anatolian:

Proto-Luwian: *kwadi ("how(?)")

Luwian:

Cuneiform script: 𒆪𒉿𒋾 (ku-wa-ti /kuwatı̄̆(n)/)

Anatolian hieroglyphic script: 𔕰𔖱 (ᴿᴱᴸra/i), 𔕰𔓰 (ᴿᴱᴸri-i /kwarī/)

Proto-Italic: *kʷot

Latin: quot

q

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *káti (with short *a as in *kátaras, from *kʷóteros) (see there for further descendants)


kʷór

Proto-Germanic: *hwar (“where?”) (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Indo-Iranian:

Proto-Indo-Aryan:

+ emphatic particle <i class="Deva mention" lang="sa">हि</i> (hi)

⇒ Sanskrit: कर्हि (kárhi, “when?”) (+ emphatic particle हि (hi))

Proto-Italic: *kʷōr (long vowel possibly influenced by *kʷō, whence quō)

Old Latin: quōr

Latin: cūr (“why?”)

hwarjaz

*kʷor (H)yós (or formed within Proto-Germanic)

which (of many)?; see there for further descendants


nér

>? Proto-Italic: *-ner

in <i class="Latn mention" lang="la">ollaner</i> (“that one (fem.) below”)

Old Latin: -ner (in ollaner (“that one (fem.) below”))

With suffix *-ér ~ *-r; the first element is unclear.

Proto-Italic: *nerterosOscan: 𐌍𐌄𐌓𐌕𐌓𐌀𐌊Umbrian: nertru

⇒ Ancient Greek: Νηρηΐς

⇒ Ancient Greek: Νηρεύς (Nēreús) (+ -εύς (-eús); as "the one below the (sea) surface")

⇒ Ancient Greek: νῶροψ

bronze; worked at in a cave; epitheton of of unknown meaning, Dunkel tentatively suggests compare Latin opus for the second element

nurþraz

region where the sun is below (the earth); left side of someone who turns to the east when praying; from zero grade; meaning either from or from; see there for further descendants

nérti

Proto-Balto-Slavic: (the acute accent in Lithuanian could be secondary like in vérti)

nerti

to dive; see there for further descendants


kúdʰe

>? Proto-Albanian:

Albanian: ku (“where”) (or from unsuffixed *kú)

Proto-Anatolian:

Lydian: 𐤨𐤰𐤣 (kud, “where (rel.)”)

Proto-Balto-Slavic: *kúde (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Celtic:

Proto-Brythonic:

Welsh: cwdd (“where?”)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *kúdʰa

Proto-Indo-Aryan:

Sanskrit: कुह (kúha)

Proto-Iranian: *kúda

Old Avestan: 𐬐𐬎𐬛𐬁 (kudā)

desc

⇒ Younger Avestan: 𐬐𐬎𐬛𐬀𐬝 (kudat̰, “from where?”) (with added ablative ending)

q

Proto-Italic: *kʷuðei (with *-i from emphatic particle or from locative ending, and with labiovelar from other interrogatives like *kʷis)

From *kú (“where”) + *-dʰe (locative suffix).


próti

Proto-Balto-Slavic: *preti, *prati

Latgalian: pret, pretim, preteims

Latvian: pret, pretī, pretējs

⇒ Proto-Slavic: *protivъ (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Hellenic:

desc

Ancient Greek: προτί (protí), πρός (prós), ποτί (potí) (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *práti

Proto-Indo-Aryan: *práti

Sanskrit: प्रति (práti) (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Iranian: *pati

Avestan:

Old Avestan: 𐬞𐬀𐬙𐬍 (patī)

Younger Avestan: 𐬞𐬀𐬌𐬙𐬌 (paⁱti)

Old Persian: [Term?] (/patiy/)

⇒ Proto-Iranian: *patiš (“against”)

Younger Avestan: 𐬞𐬀𐬌𐬙𐬌𐬱 (paⁱtiš)

Old Persian: 𐎱𐎫𐎡𐏁 (p-t-i-š /patiš/)


kʷíh₁

Proto-Albanian: *čī

Albanian: si (or from *kʷey)

Proto-Balto-Slavic: *kīˀ

Proto-Slavic: *či (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Germanic: *hwī (or from *kʷey) (see there for further descendants)

>? Proto-Indo-Iranian: *čiH

Proto-Iranian:

q

Old Avestan: 𐬗𐬍 (cī) (hapax, if not to be interpreted as part of larger term)

⇒ Proto-Indo-Iranian: *číHant-

Proto-Indo-Aryan:

with analogical <i class="Deva mention" lang="sa">क्-</i> (k-)

Sanskrit: कियत् (kíyat) (with analogical क्- (k-))

Proto-Iranian:

desc

⇒ Old Persian: [Term?] (/ciyā̆karam/, “how great?”, adv.)

⇒ Proto-Indo-Iranian: *číHwant-

Proto-Indo-Aryan:

Vedic Sanskrit: कीवत् (kī́vat) (with analogical क्- (k-))

Proto-Iranian:

Younger Avestan: 𐬗𐬎𐬎𐬀𐬧𐬙 (cuuaṇt)

Proto-Italic: *kʷī

Latin: quī (“how? why?”) (see there for further descendants)


Proto-Germanic:

Gothic: 𐌰𐌽 (an, “so? now?”)

>? Proto-Hellenic:

q

Ancient Greek: ἄν (án) (or from a reanalysis of οὐ κάν (ou kán) as οὐκ ἄν (ouk án))

Proto-Italic: *an

Latin: an

Proto-Balto-Slavic: *anasLithuanian: anàsProto-Slavic: *onъ


bʰo

desctree

Proto-Balto-Slavic: *ba
Lithuanian: bà
Proto-Slavic: *bo (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Balto-Slavic: *be (< *bʰe)

Lithuanian: bè (“and; if”)

Old Prussian: bhe, bha (“and”)


moḱs

Proto-Celtic: *moxs (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *maćšúš (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Italic: *moks(u)

Latin: mox