-iskos

-iskos (nominative singular)
-iskoes (nominative plural)
-iske (singular vocative)
-iskoes (plural vocative)
-iskom (accusative singular)
-iskoms (accusative plural)
-iskosyo (genitive singular)
-iskoHom (genitive plural)
-iskead (ablative singular)
-iskomos (ablative plural)
-iskoey (dative singular)
-iskomos (dative plural)
-iskey (locative singular)
-iskoy (locative singular)
-iskoysu (locative plural)
-iskōys (instrumental plural)
-iskām (accusative singular)
-iskom (nominative singular)
-iskoy (dual nominative)
-iskom (singular vocative)
-iskoy (dual vocative)
-iskoy (accusative dual)

Proto-Balto-Slavic: *-iškas (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Germanic: *-iskaz (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Hellenic: *-iskos

Ancient Greek: -ῐ́σκος (-ískos)

Characteristic of, typical of, pertaining to


wiḱpótis

wiḱpótis (nominative singular)
wiḱpóteyes (nominative plural)
wiḱpóti (singular vocative)
wiḱpóteyes (plural vocative)
wiḱpótim (accusative singular)
wiḱpótims (accusative plural)
wiḱpétis (genitive singular)
wiḱpétyoHom (genitive plural)
wiḱpétis (ablative singular)
wiḱpétimos (ablative plural)
wiḱpétyey (dative singular)
wiḱpétimos (dative plural)
wiḱpéti (locative singular)
wiḱpétisu (locative plural)
wiḱpétimis (instrumental plural)

Proto-Albanian: *w(i)tspáti

Proto-Albanian: *dzwāpt

Albanian: zota

Albanian: zot (“lord”)

Proto-Balto-Slavic: *w(e)iśpatis

Lithuanian: viēšpats (“god”)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *wićpátiš

Proto-Indo-Aryan: *wiśpátiṣ

desc

Sanskrit: विश्पति (viśpáti, “chief of a settlement or tribe”)

Proto-Iranian: *wicpátiš

Avestan: 𐬬𐬍𐬯𐬞𐬀𐬌𐬙𐬌 (vīspaⁱti, “master of borough, clan-chief, household-chief”)

Old Persian: 𐎻𐎰𐎳𐎫 (*viθfáti)

Middle Persian: [script needed] (wyspt' /wisbed/, “clan-chief, village headman”)

Manichaean Middle Persian: [script needed] (wysbyd /wisbed/, “village headman”)

> (right loanword) Persian: ویسبذ (visbaz, “a class of rulers in ancient Iran”)

Proto-Tocharian:

Tocharian A: wikpots (“master of the clan”)

From *weyḱ- (“village, household”) + *pótis (“master”).

compound

waispattin

Proto-Balto-Slavic: *w(e)iśpatnīˀ; Old Prussian


táwros

non-ablauting (romanization)
táwros (nominative singular)
táwroes (nominative plural)
táwre (singular vocative)
táwroes (plural vocative)
táwrom (accusative singular)
táwroms (accusative plural)
táwrosyo (genitive singular)
táwroHom (genitive plural)
táwread (ablative singular)
táwromos (ablative plural)
táwroey (dative singular)
táwromos (dative plural)
táwrey (locative singular)
táwroy (locative singular)
táwroysu (locative plural)
táwrōys (instrumental plural)

Proto-Albanian: *taura (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Balto-Slavic: *taurás (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Germanic: *steuraz, *þeuraz (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Celtic: *tarwos (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Hellenic: *táuros (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *stáwras (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Italic: *tauros (see there for further descendants)

Lusitanian: taurom

Borrowed from or into Proto-Semitic *ṯawr- (“bull, ox”), or both originated from a common unknown source. (The unconditioned /a/ suggests a non-Indo-European etymon.)


Proto-Albanian: *antā

Proto-Anatolian:

desc

Hittite: 𒄩𒀭𒍝 (ḫa-an-za /ḫants/, “in front”)

Armenian:

Old Armenian: ընդ (ənd, “to, at, towards, by”)

Proto-Germanic: *andi (“and, also, against”) (see there for further descendants)

Hellenic:

Ancient Greek: ἀντί (antí)

Greek: αντί (antí)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *Hanti

Proto-Indo-Aryan: *Hanti

Sanskrit: अन्ति (anti)

Proto-Italic: *anti

Latin: ante (see there for further descendants)

Oscan: 𐌀𐌍𐌕 (ant)

Locative singular case of the root noun *h₂énts (“forehead, front”).


ǵʰew-

*ǵʰew-d-

*ǵʰéw-ye-ti (full-grade ye-present)

Proto-Hellenic: *kʰéyyō

Ancient Greek: χείω (kheíō)

*ǵʰu-ǵʰéw-ti (reduplicated present)

*ȷ́ʰuȷ́ʰáwti

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *ȷ́ʰuȷ́ʰáwti

Proto-Indo-Aryan: *ȷ́uźʰáwti

Sanskrit: जुहोति (juhóti)

*ǵʰe-ǵʰów-e ~ *ǵʰe-ǵʰw-ḗr (reduplicated stative)

Proto-Hellenic:

Ancient Greek: κέχῠκᾰ (kékhuka)

*ȷ́ʰuȷ́ʰā́wa

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *ȷ́ʰuȷ́ʰā́wa

Proto-Indo-Aryan: *ȷ́uźʰā́wa

Sanskrit: जुहाव (juhā́va)

*ǵʰu-tó-s (see there for further descendants)

*ǵʰéw-ti-s ~ *ǵʰu-téy-s

Proto-Italic: *foutis

Latin: fūtis, fūtilis, effūtiō

*ǵʰéw-mn̥ ~ *ǵʰu-mén-s

Proto-Hellenic: *kʰéumə

Ancient Greek: χεῦμᾰ (kheûma), χύμα (khúma)

Phrygian: ζευμάν (zeumán)

*ǵʰéw-mo-s

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *ȷ́ʰáwmas

Proto-Indo-Aryan: *źʰáwmas

Sanskrit: होम (hóma)

*ǵʰu-mo-s

Proto-Hellenic:

Ancient Greek: χῡμός (khūmós)

*ǵʰu-lo-s

Proto-Hellenic:

Ancient Greek: χῡλός (khūlós)

*ǵʰew-yó-m

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *ȷ́ʰawyám

Proto-Indo-Aryan: *źʰawyám

Sanskrit: हव्य (havyá)

*ǵʰéw-tlo/eh₂- ~ *ǵʰu-tlo/eh₂-

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *ȷ́ʰáwtraH (see there for further descendants)

*ǵʰu-tlo-

Proto-Hellenic: *kʰutlon

Ancient Greek: χύτλον (khútlon)

*ǵʰéw-tro-m, *ǵʰú-tro-m

Proto-Hellenic: *kʰútra (pl.)

Ancient Greek: χύτρα (khútra)

Greek: χύτρα (chýtra)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *ȷ́ʰáwtram (see there for further descendants)

*ǵʰéw-tōr ~ *ǵʰu-tr-és

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *ȷ́ʰáwtā (see there for further descendants)

*ǵʰew-r-ih₂ or *ǵʰew-wr̥-ih₂?

Proto-Hellenic: *kʰewəřřa?

Ancient Greek: (ῑ̓ο)χέαιρα ((īo)khéaira)

Unsorted formations:

Proto-Albanian: *j́ūla

Albanian: dyllë

Proto-Albanian: *guònmi

Albanian: gumoj

Armenian:

Old Armenian: ձեւ (jew) < *ǵʰew-os or *ǵʰew-o-

Old Armenian: ձոյլ (joyl) < *ǵʰew-lo-

Old Armenian: ձոր (jor) < *ǵʰoworo- < *ǵʰowero-

(?) Old Armenian: զուտ (zut) < *ǵʰu-d-o-

(?) Old Armenian: ձագար (jagar)

Proto-Tocharian: *eñcäuwo (possibly) (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Tocharian: *käutk- (see there for further descendants)

Helmut Rix
Lexikon der indogermanischen Verben


ser-

*sr-ew-

*ser-o-

Proto-Italic: *serom (“serum, whey”)

Latin: serum (see there for further descendants)

→? Proto-Finnic: *hëra (“whey”) (see there for further descendants)

*sor-o-

Proto-Hellenic: *horós (“serum, whey”)

Ancient Greek: ὀρός (orós) (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Hellenic: *hοrmā́

Ancient Greek: ὁρμή (hormḗ) (see there for further descendants)

Unsorted formations:

Proto-Indo-Iranian:

Proto-Indo-Aryan:

Sanskrit: सरित् (sarít, “river, stream”)

Proto-Indo-Iranian:

Proto-Indo-Aryan:

Sanskrit: सिरा (sirā́, “stream, channel; vessel in the body”) (see there for further descendants)


ser-

*ser-wo-s

q

Proto-Italic: *serwos (or perhaps from the sense “to bind” below)

Old Latin: servos

Latin: servus (see there for further descendants)

>? Proto-Hellenic: *hrūomai, *hehrūomai

desc

Ancient Greek: ῥύομαι (rhúomai), εἰρύομαι (eirúomai) — Epic

Proto-Italic: *serwāō

Latin: servō (see there for further descendants)


ser-

*sér-e-ti (thematic root present)

Proto-Balto-Slavic: *sertéi

Latvian: sẽrt

desctree

Proto-Italic: *serō
Latin: serō (see there for further descendants)

*sér-ye-ti (ye-present)

Proto-Hellenic: *héřřō
Ancient Greek: εἴρω (eírō)

*sér-mn̥ ~ *sér-mō

Proto-Hellenic: *hérmə

Ancient Greek: ἕρμα (hérma)

Proto-Italic: *sermō

Latin: sermō (see there for further descendants)

*sér-ti-s

Proto-Italic: *sortis

Latin: sors (see there for further descendants)

*sór-mo-s

Proto-Armenian:

Old Armenian: որմ (orm), որմն (ormn)
Armenian: որմ (orm), առորմի (aṙormi)

Proto-Hellenic: *hórmos

Ancient Greek: ὅρμος (hórmos)

*ser-wo-s

>? Proto-Italic: *serwos (or from the sense “to guard” above)

*sor-wo-m

desc

Proto-Germanic: *sarwą (“equipment, armour”) (possibly)(or from the sense “to guard” above) (see there for further descendants)

⇒ Proto-Germanic: *gasarwiją

Old High German: gisarawi

Middle High German: geserwe

Old Norse: sørvi

Unsorted formations:

Proto-Albanian: *surmā

Albanian: gjurmë

Proto-Armenian:

desctree

Old Armenian: յեռում (yeṙum), յեռեմ (yeṙem) — post-Classical (< յ- (y-) + *ser-s-)
→ Armenian: հեռել (heṙel) (learned)

(?) Old Armenian: *հուռ- (*huṙ-) (< *sōr-s-)
Armenian: հուռ (huṙ)

(?) Old Armenian: յիրեմ (yirem) (յ- (y-) + *sēr-)
→ Armenian: հիրել (hirel) (learned)

Proto-Germanic: *sarkiz (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Indo-Iranian:

Proto-Indo-Aryan:

Sanskrit: सरत् (sarat)

Sanskrit: सिरा (sirā)

Proto-Italic:

Latin: seriēs (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Tocharian:

Tocharian A: sar-


ser-

*sr̥-yé-ti (ye-present)

Proto-Hellenic: *həřřō, ⇒ Proto-Hellenic: *həřřéyō

Ancient Greek: αἱρέω (hairéō)

*ser-(e-)ti (root present)

Proto-Balto-Slavic: *sertéi

Latvian: sirt (“to loot”)

*sór-u-

Proto-Anatolian: *sōru-

Hittite: 𒊭𒀀𒊒 (sāru, “booty, plunder”)

desc

Proto-Celtic: *serwā (“theft, plundering”) (see there for further descendants)


*télh₂-t ~ *tl̥h₂-ént (athematic root aorist)

*tl̥-né-h₂-ti ~ *tl̥-n-h₂-énti (nasal-infix present)

*te-tólh₂-e ~ *te-tl̥h₂-ḗr (stative)

*tolh₂-éye-ti (causative)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *tuláyati

Proto-Indo-Aryan: *tuláyati

Sanskrit: तुलयति (tuláyati), तोलयति (toláyati),

desctree

Proto-Italic: *tolazāō
Latin: tolerō (see there for further descendants)

*tl̥h₂-éh₁-(ye)-ti (stative)

desc

Proto-Germanic: *þulāną (“to bear, to endure”) (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Hellenic: *tálanton

Ancient Greek: τάλαντον (tálanton)

Proto-Hellenic: *tólmā

Ancient Greek: τόλμα (tólma)

Proto-Celtic: *talamū (“earth”)

Proto-Hellenic:

Ancient Greek: τελαμών (telamṓn, “strap”), τλήμων (tlḗmōn) (< *tl̥h₂-m-)

*tl̥h₂-tó-m (“bridge, ford”)

Proto-Balto-Slavic: *tílˀta

Latvian: til̃ts

Lithuanian: tìltas

→ Proto-Finnic: *cilta

Proto-Indo-Iranian:

Proto-Indo-Aryan:

>? Sanskrit: तीर्थ (tīrthá)

Unsorted formations:

Proto-Armenian:

desctree

Old Armenian: թողում (tʻołum) (possibly)
Armenian: թողնել (tʻołnel), թողել (tʻołel), թողուլ (tʻołul) — Western Armenian

Proto-Celtic: *tlātis

Proto-Brythonic: *tlọd

Middle Welsh: tlawt

Welsh: tlawd

Middle Irish: tláith

Irish: tláith

Scottish Gaelic: tlàth

Proto-Hellenic:

Ancient Greek: τάλας (tálas)

Ancient Greek: ταλαίπωρος (talaípōros)

Ancient Greek: ταλασίφρων (talasíphrōn)

Ancient Greek: Ἄτλας (Átlas) (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Italic:

⇒ Latin: opitulor


Proto-Balto-Slavic:

Proto-Slavic: *tьlò (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Balto-Slavic: *talˀa-

Old Prussian: talus (“floor”)

⇒ Proto-Balto-Slavic: *patalˀa-

Lithuanian: pãtalas (“bed”)

Proto-Slavic:

Russian: потоло́к (potolók, “ceiling”)

Proto-Celtic: *talamū (“earth”)
Old Irish: talam
Irish: talamh
Manx: thalloo
Scottish Gaelic: talamh
Gaulish: *talamon
→ Latin: Talamone
→ Latin: Talmun
French: Talmont

*tel(h₂)-nos ~ *tel(h₂)-nes-

Proto-Italic: *telnos

Latin: tellūs (“earth”) (perhaps, and reshaped after rūs)

Unsorted formations:

desc

>? Old Armenian: թաղ (tʻał, “ward, district”), թաղեմ (tʻałem, “to bury”)

Proto-Balto-Slavic:

Lithuanian: tìlės (“wooden floor in a boat”)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *tálas (“surface,bottom”)

Proto-Indo-Aryan: *tálas

Sanskrit: तल (tála)

→ Hindi: तल (tal)

Telugu: తలము (talamu)

ground, bottom. Possibly a derivative of *telh₂- "to bear" in the sense of that which bears, carries, supports.


*dm̥-né-h₂-ti ~ *dm̥-n-h₂-ti (nasal-infix present)

Proto-Celtic: *damnāti (“to subdue, break a horse”)

Old Irish: damnaid (“bind, subdue”)

Proto-Hellenic:

Ancient Greek: δάμνημι (dámnēmi)

*dm̥h₂-yé-ti (yé-present)

Proto-Celtic: *damyeti (“to allow, permit, endure”) (see there for further descendants)

*domh₂-éye-ti (causative/iterative)

desctree

Proto-Italic: *domaō
Latin: domō (see there for further descendants)

⇒ Proto-Italic: *domanos

Latin: dominus (see there for further descendants)

⇒ Proto-Italic: *domatos

Latin: domitus

*démh₂-ti-s ~ *dm̥h₂-téy-s

Proto-Hellenic:

Ancient Greek: δμῆσις (dmêsis)

Proto-Hellenic:

>? Ancient Greek: δάμαρ (dámar)

Proto-Germanic: *tamaz (see there for further descendants)

*dm̥h₂-tó-s, *demh₂-tó-s

Proto-Celtic: *dametos (“sheep”) (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Hellenic:

Ancient Greek: δμητός (dmētós)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *damHtás

Proto-Indo-Aryan: *damHtás

Sanskrit: दमित (damita)

Unsorted formations:

Albanian: dem (“bull, steer”)

Anatolian:

desc

Hittite: 𒋫𒈠𒀸 (tamāšš-, “to press, push”)

Proto-Celtic: *damos (“bull; domesticated animal”) (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Hellenic:

Ancient Greek: δαμάζω (damázō)

Ancient Greek: δμώς m (dmṓs), δμῳή f (dmōiḗ, “slave taken in war”)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *dā́myati

Proto-Indo-Aryan: *dā́myati

Sanskrit: दाम्यति (dā́myati), दमायति (damāyáti, “subdue, tame”)

Assamese: দমা (doma)

Bengali: দমা (doma)

Gujarati: દમવું (damvũ)

Old Marathi: दमणे (damaṇe)

Marathi: दमणे (damṇe)

Odia: ଦମିବା (damibā)


*h₁léwdʰ-e-ti (thematic root present)

Proto-Germanic: *leudaną (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *Hráwdʰati

Proto-Indo-Aryan: *Hráwdʰati

Sanskrit: रोधति (ródhati)

Proto-Iranian: *Hráwdati

Younger Avestan: 𐬭𐬀𐬊𐬜𐬆𐬧𐬙𐬌 (raoδəṇti)

Proto-Tocharian: *lut-

Tocharian A: lut-

Tocharian B: lut-

*h₁ludʰ-é-t (thematic root aorist) (see there for further descendants)

*h₁lewdʰ-i-s (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Hellenic: *eléutʰeros

Ancient Greek: ἐλεύθερος (eleútheros, “free”)

Proto-Italic: *louðeros (see there for further descendants)

*h₁lewdʰ-er-tos, *h₁lewdʰ-er-teh₂

Proto-Italic: *louðertos (“freedman”), *louðertā (“freedwoman”)

Faliscan: 𐌋𐌏𐌉𐌅𐌄𐌓𐌕𐌀 (loiferta), 𐌋𐌏𐌉𐌅𐌉𐌓𐌕𐌀 (loifirta, “freedwoman”) (with *ou > *oi)

Latin: lībertus, līberta (with *ou > *oi)

Proto-Albanian:

Albanian: lirë

Proto-Balto-Slavic: *ljaudas

Proto-Slavic: *ľudъ

Proto-Italic: *louðortāts (“freedom”)

Faliscan: 𐌋𐌏𐌉𐌅𐌉𐌓𐌕𐌀𐌕𐌏 (loifirtato) (with *ou > *oi)

Old Latin: loebertās (with *ou > *oi)

Latin: lībertās (see there for further descendants)

*h₁léwdʰ-tus ~ *h₁ludʰ-téws

Proto-Celtic: *lussus (see there for further descendants)

Unsorted formations:

Proto-Albanian: *lèud-no

Albanian: lem, len — dialectal

Proto-Albanian:

Albanian: vëlla

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *Hráwdʰas

Proto-Indo-Aryan: *Hráwdʰas

Sanskrit: रोध (ródha)

Proto-Iranian: *Hráwdah

Avestan: 𐬭𐬀𐬊𐬜𐬀 (raoδa)

Baluchi: ردگ (ruddag)

Pashto: لويېدل (loyedal)

Persian: رستن (rostan)

Talysh: lolo (people)


*h₁égʷʰ-ti ~ *h₁gʷʰ-énti (athematic root present) or *h₁ḗgʷʰ-ti ~ *h₁égʷʰ-n̥ti (athematic Narten root present)

Proto-Anatolian: *ʔégʷti

Hittite: 𒀀𒆪 (a-ku-), 𒂊𒆪 (e-ku-)

Luwian: 𒌋 (u-)

Lydian: 𐤨𐤬𐤱𐤰 (kofu, “water”)

Palaic: 𒀀𒄷 (a-ḫu /aḫu-/)

Proto-Hellenic: *ékʷʰō

Ancient Greek: νήφω (nḗphō, “be sober”) (prefixed with *ne-)

Proto-Tocharian: *yok- (“to drink”)

Tocharian A: yok-

Tocharian B: yok-

Proto-Italic: *ēɣʷrjos (see there for further descendants)


(s)teg-

*(s)tég-e-ti (root present)

Hellenic:

Ancient Greek: στέγω (stégō)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *stʰágati

Proto-Indo-Aryan: *stʰágati

Sanskrit: स्थगति (sthágati)

Proto-Italic: *tegō
Latin: tegō

*stog-éye-ti (causative)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *stʰagáyati

Proto-Indo-Aryan: *stʰagáyati

Sanskrit: स्थगयति (sthagáyati)

Italic:

Latin: tēgula (see there for further descendants)

*tég-mn̥

Italic:

Latin: tegmen, tegimen, tegumen (with epenthetic -i- -u-)

*teg-no-

Proto-Italic: *tegnom

Latin: tignum

*steg-nós

Proto-Hellenic: *stegnós

Ancient Greek: στεγανός (steganós)

⇒ English: steganography

*(s)tég-os

Proto-Albanian: *tāga

Albanian: tog

Albanian: toger

Proto-Celtic: *tegos (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Hellenic: *(s)tégos

desctree

Ancient Greek: στέγος (stégos), τέγος (tégos)
⇒ English: stegosaur, stegosaurus

*teg-ur-yo-

Italic:

Latin: tugurium, tegurium, tigurium

*tég-us (“thick”)

Proto-Italic: *togā

Latin: toga

*tog-o-

Proto-Celtic: *togos (“roof”)

Brythonic:

Breton: to

Welsh: to

Proto-Germanic: *þaką, *þakjaną, *þakinō (see there for further descendants)

Unsorted formations:

Proto-Balto-Slavic: *stāgas

Old Prussian: stogis

Latgalian: stogs

Lithuanian: stogas

Proto-Slavic: *stogъ (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Celtic: *entogos (< *h₁én-togo-)

Old Irish: étach (“clothing”)
Irish: éadach
Manx: eaddagh
Scottish Gaelic: aodach

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *táktas

Proto-Iranian: *táxtah

Middle Persian: tʾht' (taxt) (see there for further descendants)

desc

Khotanese: 𐨟𐨿𐨟𐨁𐨌 (ttī, “abode, covered place, nest”)

>? Proto-Indo-Iranian:

Proto-Iranian: *tāgah (“arch, vault”)

Middle Iranian: *tāk

→ Arabic: طَاق (ṭāq)

Middle Persian: tʾg (/tāg/)

desctree

Persian: طاق
→ Armenian: թաղ (tʻaġ)
→ Azerbaijani: tağ


(s)teg-

Proto-Germanic: *stakô (see there for further descendants)

*stog-nos

Proto-Germanic: *stakkaz (see there for further descendants)

*teg-slom

Proto-Italic: *tekslom

Latin: tēlum (see there for further descendants)

*teg-nom

Proto-Italic: *tegnom

Latin: tignum


h₁ésm̥ (first-person indicative past singular)
h₁és (indicative past second-person singular)
h₁és (imperative second-person singular)
h₁sdʰí (imperative second-person singular)

Proto-Anatolian: *ʔésti (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Albanian: *esmi
Albanian: jam, (3sg.) është

Armenian:

desc

Old Armenian: եմ (em), ես (es), է (ē), են (en), (probably) -ի- (-i-) (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Balto-Slavic: *bū́ˀtei (*esmi, *esi, *esti)

Latgalian: byut (asmu, esi, etc. (except ir))

Latvian: būt (esmu, esi, etc. (except ir))

Lithuanian: būti (esu, esi, etc. (except yra))

Old Prussian: ast

Proto-Slavic: *byti (*(j)esmь, *(j)esi, *(j)estь) (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Celtic: *esti (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Germanic: *wesaną (*immi, *izi, *isti etc.) (see there for further descendants)

desctree

Proto-Hellenic: *ehmi
Ancient Greek: εἰμί (eimí)
Aeolic: ἔμμι (émmi)
Cretan: ἠμί (ēmí)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *Hásti (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Italic: *som, *ezom (see there for further descendants)

Tocharian:

Tocharian B: ste (“is”)

Athematic root present of *h₁es- (“to be”).


ǵʰh₂éns

ǵʰh₂éns (nominative singular)
ǵʰh₂énsh₁ (dual nominative)
ǵʰh₂énsh₁e (dual nominative)
ǵʰh₂éns (singular vocative)
ǵʰh₂énsh₁ (dual vocative)
ǵʰh₂énsh₁e (dual vocative)
ǵʰh₂énsm̥ (accusative singular)
ǵʰh₂énsh₁ (accusative dual)
ǵʰh₂énsh₁e (accusative dual)
ǵʰh₂énsm̥s (accusative plural)
ǵʰh₂n̥sés (genitive singular)
ǵʰh₂n̥sés (ablative singular)
ǵʰh₂n̥smós (ablative plural)
ǵʰh₂n̥séy (dative singular)
ǵʰh₂n̥smós (dative plural)
ǵʰh₂éns (locative singular)
ǵʰh₂énsi (locative singular)
ǵʰh₂n̥sú (locative plural)
ǵʰh₂n̥séh₁ (instrumental singular)
ǵʰh₂n̥smís (instrumental plural)

Proto-Albanian: *gatā

Albanian: gatë

Proto-Balto-Slavic: *źansís / *gansís (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Celtic: *gansis (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Germanic: *gans (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Hellenic: *kʰā́n

Ancient Greek: χήν (khḗn)

Doric Greek: χᾱ́ν (khā́n)

desc

Mycenaean Greek: 𐀏𐀜 (ka-no /kʰā́nhos/, gen.sg.), 𐀏𐀯 (ka-si /kʰā́si/, dat.pl.)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *ȷ́ʰansás (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Italic: *hāns (see there for further descendants)

Likely of imitative origin. See *gerh₂ḗn (“crane”) for a similar onomatopoeia-based bird name.
Nonetheless, Hyllested and others have suggested a (genetic) relationship with Proto-Finno-Ugric *joŋkće, with regular correspondence of Proto-Uralic *j- and Proto-Indo-European *ǵʰ-. Similarity to Proto-Turkic *kāz (“goose”) is often discussed as well, but this is likely coincidental.

onomatopoeic

imitative

Brill Publishers
Rick Derksen
Vladimir Orel


h₃nógʰh₁ (dual nominative)
h₃nógʰh₁ (dual vocative)
h₃nógʰm̥ (accusative singular)
h₃nógʰh₁ (accusative dual)

Armenian: *unug- (< accusative *h₃nógʰ-m̥)

Old Armenian: եղունգն (ełungn) (+ *-n (body part suffix))

Proto-Balto-Slavic: *nágas

East Baltic:

Lithuanian: nãgas

Latvian: nags

Latgalian: nogs

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *Hnā́kš (see there for further descendants)

nagutis

Proto-Balto-Slavic: *nagutis; Old Prussian

unguis

Proto-Italic: *ungus (or < later *h₃n̥gʰ-ú-s)


ǵénus

ǵénus (nominative singular)
ǵénuh₁ (dual nominative)
ǵénewes (nominative plural)
ǵénu (singular vocative)
ǵénuh₁ (dual vocative)
ǵénewes (plural vocative)
ǵénum (accusative singular)
ǵénuh₁ (accusative dual)
ǵénums (accusative plural)
ǵn̥wés (genitive singular)
ǵn̥wóHom (genitive plural)
ǵn̥wés (ablative singular)
ǵnumós (ablative plural)
ǵn̥wéy (dative singular)
ǵnumós (dative plural)
ǵnéw (locative singular)
ǵnéwi (locative singular)
ǵnusú (locative plural)
ǵn̥wéh₁ (instrumental singular)
ǵnumís (instrumental plural)

⇒ Proto-Armenian:

Old Armenian: *ծին-աւտ (*cin-awt)

desctree

Old Armenian: ծնօտ (cnōt), ծնաւտ (cnawt), ծնոտ (cnot)
Armenian: ծնոտ (cnot)

⇒ Proto-Balto-Slavic:

Old Prussian: żauna

Proto-Celtic: *genus (see there for further descendants)

q

with geminate *nn of uncertain origin; perhaps < <i class="Latn mention" lang="ine-pro">*ǵenw-ú-s</i>?

⇒ Proto-Germanic: *kinnuz (with geminate *nn of uncertain origin; perhaps < *ǵenw-ú-s?) (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Hellenic: *génus

Ancient Greek: γένυς (génus)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *ȷ́ʰánuš (with unexplained aspiration of *ĵ) (see there for further descendants)

⇒ Proto-Italic: *genā f

Latin: gena (“cheek(bone)”) (see there for further descendants)

⇒ Phrygian: ἀζήν (azḗn, “beard”)

Proto-Tocharian: *ćänu

Tocharian A: śanwem du (“jaws”)


>? Proto-Hellenic:

desc

Ancient Greek: τῖφος (tîphos, “pond, swamp”)

*teh₂-bʰ-eh₁- (“to be melting”)

Proto-Italic: *tāfē-

Latin: tābēs (“melting, decay”), tābēo (“to rot, decay”), tābum (“gore”)

desctree

Proto-Celtic: *tādeti (“to melt”)
Proto-Brythonic: *tọðɨd
Old Breton: todint
Middle Breton: teuziff
Breton: teuziñ
Cornish: tedha
Middle Welsh: todi
Welsh: toddi
Old Irish: (incorporated into the paradigm of tinaid) ·taa (3sg. subj.), ro·tetha (3sg. perf.)

*teh₂-k- (“to melt”)

Proto-Hellenic:

Ancient Greek: τήκω (tḗkō, “to melt”), τηκτός (tēktós, “molten”)

Doric Greek: τάκω (tákō, “to melt”)

Proto-Iranian: *taHč- (“to melt”)

Khotanese: byāj- (“to dissolve”)

Northern Kurdish: bihoştin, bihoj- (“to melt”)

Parthian: wdc- (“to melt”), w(y)d’c- (“to dissolve”)

Middle Persian:

desc

Manichaean Middle Persian: wdc- (“to melt”)

Book Pahlavi: wt’c- (widāz-, “to melt”), wt’cyn- (widāzēn-, “to cause to melt”)

Persian: گداختن (godâxtan), گداز (godâz, “to smelt, melt”)

Tajik: гудохтан (gudoxtan)

Sogdian: [script needed] (wyt’wxs, “to disappear, melt away”), [script needed] (wyt’yc, “to melt”)

*teh₂-w- (“to melt”)

Proto-Germanic: *þawjaną (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Celtic: *tāyeti (“to melt”)

Old Irish: taíd

Proto-Iranian: *taH- (“to flow; to melt”)

Northeastern Iranian:

Khwarezmian: t’sy- (“to melt”)

Ossetian:

Digor Ossetian: тайун (tajun, “to melt, thaw”), уодайун (uodajun, “to wet, soak”)

Iron Ossetian: та́йын (tájyn, “to melt, thaw”), у́дайын (údajyn, “to wet, soak”)

Northwestern Iranian:

Awromani: [script needed] (tāwiā́y)

Gurani: [script needed] (-tāwin-, “to melt”)

Kurdish:

Central Kurdish: تاویانەوە (tawyanewe), توانەوە (twanewe, “to dissolve, melt”)

Proto-Slavic: *tàjati (“to thaw”) (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Germanic: *þainaz (“wet, moist”)

Old English: þān

Middle English: *than, *thon

English: thone, thoan

Scots: thane, thain

Proto-Celtic: *tāmus

Old Irish: tám (“plague, death”)

Proto-Celtic: *tasyā

Old Irish: taise (“dampness; corpse, decay”)

Proto-Celtic: *tasyos

Old Irish: tais (“damp, moist; soft, spongy”)

Unsorted formations:

Old Armenian: թանամ (tʻanam, “to make wet”), թան (tʻan, “soup”), թանչ (tʻančʻ, “dysentery”) (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Baltic:

Lithuanian: tyras

Latvian: tīrelis (“moor”)

>? Proto-Germanic: *þaisimô (see there for further descendants)

>? Proto-Celtic: *tīn

Sanskrit: तामर (tāmara, “water”), तोयम् (toyam, “water”), Sanskrit: तोशते (tośate, “drip, distil, trickle”), possibly Sanskrit: तुषार (tuṣāra, “rain, mist, drizzle, sleet, snow; frigid, wet”).


>? Proto-Italic: *taðlom

Latin: tabulum, tabula (see there for further descendants)


third-person plural present indicative of *h₁ésti


wert-

*wért-ti ~ *wr̥t-énti (athematic root present)

*wért-e-tor (thematic middle)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *wártatay

Proto-Indo-Aryan: *wártatay

Sanskrit: वर्तते (vártate, “to turn”) (see there for further descendants)

*wr̥t-éh₁-ti (éh₁-stative)

Proto-Balto-Slavic: *wirtḗˀtei

Proto-Slavic: *vьrtě̀ti (“to turn”) (see there for further descendants)

*wert-ye- (ye-present)

Proto-Balto-Slavic:

Lithuanian: versti

*we-wórt-e ~ *we-wr̥t-ḗr (stative)

*wort-éye-ti (causative)

*wr̥t-ís

Proto-Germanic: *wurdiz (“fate”) (see there for further descendants)

*wert-en-om

Proto-Indo-Iranian:

Proto-Indo-Aryan:

Sanskrit: वर्तन (vártana)

Proto-Balto-Slavic: *wertena

Proto-Slavic: *verteno (see there for further descendants)

*wért-mn̥

Proto-Balto-Slavic: *werˀtmin

Proto-Slavic: *vermę (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *wártma

Proto-Indo-Aryan: *wártma

Sanskrit: वर्त्मन् (vártman) (see there for further descendants)

*wr̥t-tós

Proto-Balto-Slavic: *wirstā́ˀ (from feminine *wr̥t-téh₂)

Proto-Slavic: *vьrsta (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Italic: *worssos

Latin: versus (see there for further descendants)

Unsorted formations:

Proto-Albanian: *writja

Albanian: rris

Proto-Indo-Iranian:

Proto-Indo-Aryan:

Sanskrit: वर्तिन् (vartin)

Proto-Indo-Iranian:

Proto-Iranian:

Middle Persian: [script needed] (wrd-)

Persian: گرد (gerd)

Tajik: гирд (gird)

Proto-Balto-Slavic:

(Baltic:)

Lithuanian: vir̃sti

Latvian: virst

Old Prussian: wirst

Proto-Slavic: *vorta (“gate”) (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Germanic: *werþaz, *wardaz (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Germanic: *wuldrą (“glory”) (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Germanic: *wulþuz (“glory”) (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Celtic: *wertos

Proto-Brythonic: *gwerθ (possibly Germanic borrowing) (see there for further descendants)


Proto-Albanian: *p(e)izda

Albanian: pidh

Proto-Balto-Slavic: *pīˀsdāˀ (long vowel by Winter's law) or *peisdāˀ

East Baltic:

Latvian: pīzda

Lithuanian: pyzdà

West Baltic:

Old Prussian: peisda (“ass”)

Proto-Slavic: *pīzdà (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *pízdaH

Proto-Iranian: *pízdaH

Persian: پیزی (pīzī, “ass, anus”)

Proto-Nuristani: *pīḍikā́ (< *pizdikáH)

Northern Nuristani:

Kamkata-viri:

Kamviri: přī́

Kativiri: přií

Southern Nuristani:

Ashkun: piṛí

As suggested by Hamp 1968: from *h₁epi (“upon, by”) + *sed- (“to sit”); i.e. originally an euphemism meaning "what one sits on". Compare *nisdós (“nest”) < *ni (“down”) + *sed- (“to sit”).
Archaic formation, but with geographically limited distribution, only to central and eastern Indo-European dialects.


*kléh₂-t ~ *klh₂-én-t (root athematic)

⇒ *kléh₂t-e-ti (reanalyzed perfect)

Proto-Germanic: *hlaþaną (see there for further descendants)

⇒ *kléh₂t-tu-s

Proto-Germanic: *hlastuz (see there for further descendants)

*kléh₂-ye-ti (ye-present)

Proto-Balto-Slavic: *klā́ˀtei

Latvian: klāt

Lithuanian: klóti

*kléh₂-dʰh₁e-ti (dʰh₁e-present)

Proto-Balto-Slavic: *klāˀstei

Proto-Slavic: *klasti (see there for further descendants)


Proto-Albanian: *agnjā

Albanian: enjë

Proto-Balto-Slavic:

Proto-Slavic: *agnę (< *h₂egʷ-n-ent-, Winter's law) (see there for further descendants)

>? Proto-Baltic: *ōgnas (not attested in any Baltic language)

>? Proto-Finnic: *vootna (see there for further descendants)

q

Proto-Celtic: *ognos (initial vowel influenced by *owis (“ewe, sheep”))

Proto-Brythonic: *oɨn

Breton: oan

Old Cornish: oin

Welsh: oen

Old Irish: úan

Irish: uan

Manx: eayn

Scottish Gaelic: uan

Proto-Germanic: *aunaz (influenced by *awiz (“ewe, sheep”))

⇒ Proto-Germanic: *aunōną (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Hellenic:

Ancient Greek: ἀμνός (amnós) (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Italic: *agʷnos

Latin: agnus (see there for further descendants)

⇒ Proto-Italic: *agʷnelos (diminutive)

Latin: avillus (< *agʷn̥los)


kʷíd

Proto-Albanian: *tši

Albanian: çë

Proto-Anatolian: *kʷíd

Proto-Balto-Slavic: *ki (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Celtic: *kʷid (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Hellenic: *kʷí

Ancient Greek: τί (tí)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *číd

Proto-Indo-Aryan: *ćíd

Sanskrit: चिद् (cíd) चित् (cít)

Proto-Iranian: *číd

Avestan: 𐬗𐬌𐬝 (cit̰)

Proto-Italic: *kʷid

Latin: quid (see there for further descendants)

neuter nominative/accusative singular of *kʷís


kʷos

kʷós (nominative singular)
kʷóh₁ (dual nominative)
kʷóy (nominative plural)
kʷóm (accusative singular)
kʷóh₁ (accusative dual)
kʷóms (accusative plural)
kʷósyo (genitive singular)
kʷóysoHom (genitive plural)
kʷósmead (ablative singular)
kʷóymos (ablative plural)
kʷósmey (dative singular)
kʷóymos (dative plural)
kʷósmi (locative singular)
kʷóysu (locative plural)
kʷṓys (instrumental plural)
kʷéh₂ (nominative singular)
kʷā́m (accusative singular)
kʷéh₂m̥s (accusative plural)
kʷéh₂h₁ (instrumental singular)
kʷéh₂eh₁ (instrumental singular)
kʷód (nominative singular)
kʷóy (dual nominative)
kʷéh₂ (nominative plural)
kʷód (accusative singular)
kʷóy (accusative dual)
kʷéh₂ (accusative plural)


n̥h₂ḗwh₁ (dual nominative)
n̥h₂ḗw (singular vocative)
n̥h₂ḗwh₁ (dual vocative)
n̥h₂ḗm (accusative singular)
n̥h₂ḗwh₁ (accusative dual)
n̥h₂ḗw (locative singular)
n̥h₂wéh₁ (instrumental singular)
n̥h₂éw (locative singular)
n̥h₂wéh₁ (instrumental singular)

Proto-Armenian: *nawa-

Old Armenian: նաւ (naw)

Proto-Celtic: *nāwā

Brythonic:

Middle Breton: neau, nev

Breton: new

Middle Welsh: noe

Goidelic:

desctree

Old Irish: nau
Middle Irish: nó
Irish: nae

Proto-Germanic: *nōaz (perhaps, with labiovelar from *Hw) *nakwô

Old Norse: nór

Icelandic: nór

Proto-Hellenic: *náus

Ancient Greek: ναῦς (naûs)

Epic, Ionic Greek: νηῦς (nēûs)

Doric Greek: νᾱός (nāós, gen.sg.)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *náHuš (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Italic: *naus ~ *nāwis

Latin: nāvis

Illyrian: *Nauna, *Nauportus (toponyms)

An agent noun originally meaning "swimmer, that which swims" derived from *(s)neh₂- (“to swim”).
Gamkrelidze and Ivanov argue that it is a borrowing from the Proto-Semitic term from which Arabic إِنَاء (ʔināʔ) descends and which is of no distinct form to be discerned from its distorted descendants: *ʔunw(at)-, *ʔunawāy-, *ʔunuwāy-, *ʔuniwāy- (“jar, vessel; boat”).

նավաստի

→ Old Armenian: նաւաստի (nawasti, “sailor”)


Proto-Hellenic: *dótis
Ancient Greek: δόσις (dósis)
→ Late Latin: dosis (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *dítiš

Proto-Indo-Aryan: *dítiṣ

Sanskrit: दिति (díti)

Proto-Italic: *dōtis

Latin: dōs (see there for further descendants)

From *deh₃- (“to give”) + *-tis (abstract or action suffix).


h₁ógʷʰis

h₁ógʷʰis (nominative singular)
h₁ógʷʰih₁ (dual nominative)
h₁ógʷʰih₁e (dual nominative)
h₁ógʷʰi (singular vocative)
h₁ógʷʰih₁ (dual vocative)
h₁ógʷʰih₁e (dual vocative)
h₁ógʷʰim (accusative singular)
h₁ógʷʰih₁ (accusative dual)
h₁ógʷʰih₁e (accusative dual)
h₁égʷʰis (genitive singular)
h₁égʷʰis (ablative singular)
h₁égʷʰi (locative singular)
h₁égʷʰih₁ (instrumental singular)

Armenian:

Old Armenian: իժ (iž)

Proto-Germanic: *agwiz

⇒ Proto-Germanic: *egalaz (see there for further descendants)

Proto-West Germanic: *agi

⇒ Proto-West Germanic: *agiþahsijā (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Hellenic: *ókʷʰis

Ancient Greek: ὄφις (óphis)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *Háǰʰiš (see there for further descendants)

>? Proto-Tocharian: *ewk (< *ekw)

Tocharian B: auk

(ís) h₁ógʷʰim gʷʰent

he killed the serpent (literally, “(he) [the] serpent [he] killed”)

a mythic serpent or dragon that is slain by a great hero in Indo-European mythology


swer-

*swer- (root present)

Proto-Germanic: *sweraną (see there for further descendants)

*swer-wos

desctree

Proto-Celtic: *swerwos (“bitter”)
Proto-Brythonic: *hwerw
Old Breton: hueru
Breton: c'hwerv
Cornish: hwerow
Middle Welsh: chwerw
Welsh: chwerw
Old Irish: serb
Irish: searbh
Scottish Gaelic: searbh
Manx: sharroo

*swer-tó- or *swer-dʰo-

qual

Germanic: (unclear, requiring an additional original sense 'to cut') *swerdą (“sword”) (see there for further descendants)

*swer-ō

Proto-Germanic: *swerô

Old High German: swero

German: Schwäre

*swór-os

Proto-Balto-Slavic:

Proto-Slavic: *xvorъ (see there for further descendants)

Unsorted formations:

Proto-Celtic:

Welsh: chwarren (“gland”)


swer-

*swér-e-ti (thematic root present)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *swárati

Proto-Indo-Aryan: *swárati

Sanskrit: स्वरति (svárati)

*swḗr-s-t ~ *swér-s-n̥t (s-aorist)

Proto-Indo-Iranian:

Proto-Indo-Aryan:

Sanskrit: अस्वार् (ásvār)

*swor-ye- (o-grade ye-present)

Proto-Germanic: *swarjaną (“to swear”) (see there for further descendants)

*swor-éye- (causative)

Balto-Slavic:

Proto-Slavic: *svariti (see there for further descendants)

desc

Proto-Germanic: *swarō (“statement, oath, vow”) (see there for further descendants)

*swor-ós

Balto-Slavic:

Proto-Slavic: *svarъ (see there for further descendants)

Unsorted formations:

Italic:

Latin: (possibly) surdus (“deaf”)

Latin: (perhaps) susurrus (“whisper, rustle”)

Oscan: (possibly) sverruneí (“speaker?”, dative singular)


Proto-Germanic: *erþō (“earth, ground, soil”) (see there for further descendants)

Unsorted formations:

Proto-Albanian: *ā̆ur(V)n

Albanian: varr

>? Proto-Balto-Slavic:

Lithuanian: érdvė

Celtic:

Welsh: erw (“field”) (or < *h₂erh₃- (“to plow”))

Hellenic:

Ancient Greek: *ἔρα (*éra) (in ἔραζε (éraze, “on the ground”) and compounds)

Proto-Tocharian:

Tocharian B: āre


Armenian:

Old Armenian: աւղի (awłi)

Proto-Balto-Slavic: *álu (see there for further descendants)

→? Proto-Finnic: *olut (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Germanic: *alu (see there for further descendants)

→? Ossetian: *ӕлут (*ælut), ӕлутон (æluton), илӕтон (ilæton), ӕлотон (æloton)

→ Georgian: ლუდი (ludi), ალუდი (aludi)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *Harušás (“reddish”) (possibly)

Proto-Indo-Aryan: *Haruṣás

Sanskrit: अरुष (aruṣá)

Proto-Iranian: *Harušáh

Avestan: 𐬀𐬎𐬭𐬎𐬱𐬀 (aᵘruša, “bright, white”)

According to some the original meaning was "a bitter drink" and is related to Latin alūmen (“alum”) and Ancient Greek ἀλύδοιμος (alúdoimos, “bitter, pungent”).
Another theory is that it is connected to Proto-Norse ᚨᛚᚢ (alu, “something magical”), and related to Latvian aluot (“be distraught”), Ancient Greek ἀλύω (alúō, “to be distraught”) and Hittite [script needed] (alwanzaḫḫ-, “to bewitch, hex”). EIEC explains the semantic connection as: The notion would be that beer induced a "high" wherein the drinker was infused with a sort of magical power.
The most recent theory is that it is related to Sanskrit अरुष (aruṣá, “reddish”) and Avestan 𐬀𐬎𐬭𐬎𐬱𐬀 (aᵘruša, “bright, white”), from which Proto-Indo-Iranian *Harušás can be reconstructed from the two languages.


pró

desctree

Proto-Anatolian: *prṓ
Hittite: 𒉺𒊏𒀀 (pa-ra-a /prā/)

Proto-Balto-Slavic: *pra

Old Prussian: pra, pro

Proto-Slavic: *pro (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Celtic: *ɸro (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Hellenic: *pró

Ancient Greek: πρό (pró), πρωΐ (prōḯ) (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *prá

Proto-Indo-Aryan: *prá

Sanskrit: प्र (prá)

Proto-Iranian: *frá

Avestan: 𐬟𐬭𐬀- (fra-)

Proto-Italic: *prō (perhaps from *pro-h₁ (ins.sg.))

Latin: prō (see there for further descendants)

pirmas

Proto-Balto-Slavic: *pírmas; Old Prussian

fram

Proto-West Germanic: *fram; Middle High German

framr

Proto-Germanic: *framaz (“forward; forthright”)

⇒ Proto-Germanic: *framjaną

Proto-Germanic: *fram (“forward, from, away”) (see there for further descendants)

to perform, promote, further; see there for further descendants

𐬟𐬭𐬀𐬙𐬀𐬭𐬀

Proto-Iranian: *frátaram; Younger Avestan

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *pratʰamásProto-Indo-Aryan: *pratʰamásSanskrit: प्रथमProto-Iranian: *fratamáhCentral Iranian:Avestan: 𐬟𐬭𐬀𐬙𐬆𐬨𐬀Northeastern Iranian:Sogdian: [script needed]Western Iranian:Southwestern Iranian:Old Persian: 𐎳𐎼𐎫𐎶𐎠Middle Persian:Manichaean script: 𐫛𐫡𐫤𐫇𐫖Book Pahlavi script: [Book Pahlavi needed]Persian: فردم→ Old Armenian: փարթամArmenian: փարթամ


prews-

*prews- (root present)

Proto-Germanic: *freusaną (see there for further descendants)

*presw-os (by metathesis)

Proto-Celtic: *ɸreswos (see there for further descendants)

*prus-tós

Proto-Germanic: *frustaz (see there for further descendants)

Unsorted formations:

Proto-Albanian: *pruś-

Albanian: prush

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *prušwáH (“ice”)

Proto-Indo-Aryan: *pruṣwáH

Sanskrit: प्रुष्वा (pruṣvā́, prúṣvā)

Latin: pruīna

Venetian: puìna, poìna

Latin: prūna

Latin: prūriō (see there for further descendants)


h₂n̥gʷʰéy- (oblique stem)
h₂éngʷʰih₁ (dual nominative)
h₂éngʷʰi (singular vocative)
h₂éngʷʰih₁ (dual vocative)
h₂éngʷʰih₁ (accusative dual)
h₂n̥gʷʰéys (genitive singular)
h₂n̥gʷʰéys (ablative singular)
h₂n̥gʷʰéy (locative singular)
h₂n̥gʷʰḗy (locative singular)
h₂n̥gʷʰísu (locative plural)
h₂n̥gʷʰíh₁ (instrumental singular)

Proto-Albanian: *ts-angulā

Albanian: thnegël (“ant”)

Armenian:

Old Armenian: աւձ (awj)

Armenian: օձ (ōj)

(possibly) Armenian: անգի (angi, “thin, emaciated”)

Proto-Balto-Slavic: *ángis (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Celtic:

Old Irish: escong (“eel”)
Irish: eascann
Manx: astan
Scottish Gaelic: easgann

Welsh: llysywen

Proto-Italic: *anɣʷis (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Germanic: *unkwiz or *unkwô (< *h₂n̥gʷʰ-)

Old High German: unc
German: Unke

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *Hánǰʰiš

Proto-Iranian: *Hánǰiš

Persian: یغنیج (yağnij, “grass snake”) (archaic)


*ḱérh₂-s ~ *ḱr̥h₂-és (root noun)

desc

>? Proto-Italic: *krās (“at the peak, at the start, early”)

>? Latin: crās (“tomorrow”) (see there for further descendants)

*ḱérh₂-os ~ *ḱérh₂-es-

Proto-Hellenic: *kéras

Ancient Greek: κέρᾰς (kéras)

*ḱerh₂-o-now-os (literally “head nodding”)

Proto-Italic: *keronowos

Latin: cernuus

*ḱérh₂-s-ō ~ *ḱr̥h₂-s-né-s

Proto-Italic: *kerazrom

Latin: cerebrum (see there for further descendants)

*ḱórh₂-we-h₂ (collective)

Proto-Balto-Slavic: *kárˀwāˀ

Lithuanian: kárvė

Proto-Slavic: *kòrva (see there for further descendants)

⇒ *ḱrént-os ~ *ḱrn̥t-és-s

Proto-Germanic: *hrinþaz, *hrunþaz (see there for further descendants)

*ḱŕ̥h₂-es-n-h₂ (collective)

Proto-Hellenic: *kárahna

Ancient Greek: κᾰ́ρηνον (kárēnon) (backformation from *kárahna)

Doric: κᾰ́ρᾱνον (kárānon)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *ćr̥Hšā

Proto-Indo-Aryan: *śr̥Hṣā

Vedic Sanskrit: शीर्षा (śīrṣā)

Proto-Celtic: *karnos

Proto-Brythonic: karn

Old Breton: carn

Breton: karn

Middle Welsh: carn

Welsh: carn

Gaulish: *karnon (“horn”), karnuātus (“horned”)

→ Ancient Greek: κάρνον (kárnon, “Gallic horn”)

Proto-Germanic: *hurną (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *ćr̥Hngám

Proto-Indo-Aryan: *śr̥Hngám

Sanskrit: शृङ्ग (śṛṅgá, “horn, tusk”) (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Italic: *kornū

>? Latin: cornū (see there for further descendants)

⇒ *ḱr̥h₂-néh₂

⇒ *ḱr̥h₂-néh₂

desctree

Proto-Balto-Slavic: *śírˀnāˀ
East Baltic:
Old Latvian: sirna
Latvian: stir̃na
Lithuanian: stìrna
Proto-Slavic: *sь̀rna (see there for further descendants)

*ḱŕ̥h₂-os ~ *ḱŕ̥h₂-es-

Proto-Armenian:

desc

Old Armenian: սար (sar, “tip, top; mountain”) (or borrowed from the Iranian cognate)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *ćŕ̥Has

Proto-Indo-Aryan: *śr̥Hás

Sanskrit: शिर (śira)

Proto-Iranian: *cr̥Háh

Avestan: 𐬯𐬁𐬭𐬀 (sāra), 𐬯𐬀𐬭𐬀 (sara)

*ḱr̥h₂-s-ḗr ~ *ḱr̥h₂-s-n-ós (“hornet”, literally “the one with horns, i.e. antennae”)

Proto-Balto-Slavic: *śirˀšō (see there for further descendants)

Latgalian: šyršyns

Latvian: sir̂senis

Lithuanian: širšuo, šìršė

Proto-Slavic: *sьrxy (see there for further descendants)

→ Proto-Finnic: *herhiläinen

Proto-Germanic: *hurznutō (see there for further descendants) now at Reconstruction:Proto-West Germanic/hurnutu

Proto-Italic: *krāzrō

Latin: crābrō (see there for further descendants)

*ḱr̥h₂-wós, *ḱér-wo-s ~ *ḱr̥h₂-éw-os (“deer, stag”, literally “the horned one”)

Proto-Balto-Slavic: *śirˀwas

Old Prussian: sirwis

→ Proto-Finnic: *hirvas, *hirvi (see there for further descendants)

→ Proto-Samic: *sërvēs, *sërvë (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Celtic: *karwos (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Hellenic: *kerawós

Ancient Greek: κερᾰός (keraós), κερᾱΐς (kerāḯs)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *ćr̥Hwás (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Italic: *kerwos

Latin: cervus (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Albanian: *krōna

Albanian: krye

Unsorted formations:

Anatolian:

Hittite: [script needed] (karau̯ar), [script needed] (surna), [script needed] (harsar)

Luwian: [script needed] (zurni)

→ Persian: سرنا (sornâ) (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Germanic: *herutaz (“deer, stag”) (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Hellenic:

Ancient Greek: κάρυον (káruon)

Potentially a collective derivation in *-h₂ from *ḱer- (“to grow”), of which the original root noun may be fossilized in Latin crās. A possible loan relation with Proto-Semitic *ḳarn- (“horn”) has also been suggested. However, it is probably unrelated to Old Chinese 觡 (*kraːɡ, “antler”) and 觥 (*kʷraːŋ, “drinking vessel made of animal horn”) despite the phonological and semantic resemblance between the three.


kʷer-

*kʷér-t ~ *kʷr-ént (root aorist)

Proto-Anatolian:

Hittite: 𒆪𒅕𒈪 (ku-er-mi, 1sg.pres.act.), 𒆪𒂊𒅕𒍣 (ku-e-er-zi, “to cut, to cut up, to cut off”, 3sg.pres.act.), 𒆪𒂊𒅕𒋫 (ku-e-er-ta, 3sg.pret.act.)

Luwian: [script needed] (kuwarti)

Proto-Balto-Slavic:

Old Prussian: kūra (“he built”)

Proto-Celtic: *kʷareti (“make, cause”)

Middle Breton: paras (3sg.pret.)

Welsh: peri; paraf (1sg.pres.)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *Hákart (see there for further descendants)

*kʷér-(h₁)s-eti ~ *kʷér-(h₁)s-onti ((h₁)se-desiderative)

Proto-Anatolian:

Hittite: [script needed] (ku-e-er-šu-un, 1sg.pret.act.), [script needed] (kur-ša-a-i, “to cut off”, 2sg.imp.act.)

*kʷér-kʷor- ~ *kʷér-kʷr̥- (secondary intensive)

Proto-Anatolian:

Hittite: [script needed] (kurkuriyat)

q

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *kárkr̥- (as if from *kʷor-kʷr̥-; expected **čárkr̥-)

Proto-Indo-Aryan: *kárkr̥-

desc

Sanskrit: करिकृत् (kárikrat, act. participle)

*kʷe-kʷór-e (perfect)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *čakā́ra

Proto-Indo-Aryan: *ćakā́ra

Sanskrit: चकार (cakā́ra, “has made”)

*kʷí-kʷr̥-(h₁)s-eti ~ *kʷí-kʷr̥-(h₁)s-onti (reduplicated (h₁)se-desiderative)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *číkr̥Hšati

Proto-Indo-Aryan: *ćíkr̥Hṣati

Sanskrit: चिकीर्षति (cíkīrṣati)

*kʷor-éye-ti ~ *kʷor-éy-onti (éye-causative)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *kāráyati

Proto-Indo-Aryan: *kāráyati

Sanskrit: कारयति (kāráyati), कारयते (kāráyate)

*kʷ-kʷr̥s-eti ~ *kʷ-kʷr̥s-onti

Proto-Anatolian:

Hittite: [script needed] (ku-kur-ša-an-t-), Hittite: [script needed] (ku-gur-ša-an-t-, “to cut up, to mutilate”, part.)

*kʷr̥-néw-ti ~ *kʷr̥-nw-énti (néw-present)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *kr̥náwti (see there for further descendants)

*kʷr̥-sḱ-éti ~ *kʷr̥-sḱ-ónti (sḱe-present)

Proto-Anatolian:

Hittite: [script needed] (kuraski[zzi], 3sg.), [script needed] (kureskanzi, 3pl.)

*kʷér-mn̥ ~ *kʷr̥-méns

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *čárma ~ *kr̥máns

Proto-Indo-Aryan: *ćárma ~ *kármanas

>? Sanskrit: कर्मन् (kárman, “act, action”) (see there for further descendants)

*kʷér-ōr

Ancient Greek: πέλωρ (pélōr, “supernatural monster”)

⇒ Ancient Greek: πελώριος (pelṓrios)

Greek: πελώριος (pelórios, “gigantic, enormous”)

*kʷór-o-s

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *kā́ras

Proto-Iranian: *kā́rah

Middle Persian: [script needed] (kʾl /kār/, “work, deed, affair”)

Persian: کار (kâr, “work”)

*kʷér-tis ~ *kʷr̥-téy-s

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *kŕ̥tiš

Proto-Indo-Aryan: *kŕ̥tiṣ

Sanskrit: कृति (kṛ́ti, “the act of doing”)

*kʷér-tu-s ~ *kʷr̥-téw-s

Proto-Celtic: *kʷritus

desctree

Old Irish: cruth (“form”), crud
Irish: cruth
Manx: croo
Scottish Gaelic: cruth

Welsh: pryd (“form, time”), prydaf (“compose poetry, versify”)

*kʷr̥-tó-s

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *kr̥tás (see there for further descendants)

*kʷr̥-yos

Proto-Celtic: *kʷaryos (“cauldron”) (see there for further descendants)

*kʷór-yo-s

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *kā́ryas

Proto-Indo-Aryan: *kā́ryas

Sanskrit: कार्य (kārya) (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Iranian: *karyah

Avestan: 𐬐𐬀𐬌𐬭𐬌𐬌𐬀 (kaⁱriia)

Unsorted formations

Proto-Albanian: *tšerkā

Albanian: sarkë (“build, frame”)

Proto-Balto-Slavic: *kēr-, *ker-

Lithuanian: kẽras (“charm, magic”), kerė́ti (“to enchant, charm, bewitch”), kùrti (“to do, make, build”)

Proto-Slavic: *čarъ (“magic, sorcery”), *čara (“magic, sorcery”) (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Celtic: *kʷritanī, *kʷritenī

Proto-Brythonic: *Pritanī, *Pritenī, ?*Brɨθon

Middle Welsh: Prydein

Welsh: Prydain, ?Brython

→ Ancient Greek: Πρεττανία (Prettanía), Βρεττανία (Brettanía)

→ Latin: Brittānia

Proto-Hellenic:

q

with <i class="Polyt mention" lang="grc">-ας</i> (-as) added within Greek

Ancient Greek: τέρας (téras) (with -ας (-as) added within Greek) (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *kar-

Proto-Iranian: *kar-

Middle Persian: 𐭪𐭫𐭩 (-kly /-gar/)

Persian: ـگر (-gar)

Proto-Tocharian:

Tocharian A: karel

Tocharian B: kerū

The original meaning is often reconstructed as "to carve, to shape by cutting", based on the Anatolian forms.


Armenian:

Old Armenian: տուր (tur)

Proto-Balto-Slavic: *dāˀras

Proto-Slavic: *dȃrъ (or from *dóh₃r-u-s, *déh₃r-u-s ~ *dh₃r-éw-s) (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Hellenic: *dṓron

Ancient Greek: δῶρον (dôron)

From *dóh₃-r̥ ~ *déh₃-n̥-s (“gift”) + *-om. Alternatively, substantivized from *dh₃-ró-s, *deh₃-ró-s (“given, gifted”), from *deh₃- (“to give”) + *-rós.


Proto-Albanian: *mē

Albanian: mo

Proto-Albanian: *mē tše

Albanian: mos

Proto-Armenian:

Old Armenian: մի (mi)
Armenian: մի (mi)

desc

→ Urartian: 𒈪𒉌 (/mī, mi, me(i)/, “usually: and; as a prohibitive: no, not”)

Proto-Hellenic: *mḗ

Ancient Greek: μή (mḗ)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *maH (see there for further descendants)

Messapic: [script needed] (ma, “not”)

Compare Tocharian A/Tocharian B mā (“not, no”), not a prohibitive particle. According to Martirosyan, if the word originally meant ‘not’ and later obtained the function of the prohibitive, we are dealing with an Armeno-Greek-Albanian-Indo-Iranian grammatical isogloss.
Could be related to *meytH- (“to replace, switch, exchange, swap”), giving the idea of something doing wrong. See Proto-Germanic *missa- for further details.


wek(ʷ)speros

weksperos (canonical masculine)
non-ablauting (romanization)
weksperos (nominative singular)
wekʷsperos (nominative singular)
weksperoes (nominative plural)
wekʷsperoes (nominative plural)
wekspere (singular vocative)
wekʷspere (singular vocative)
weksperoes (plural vocative)
wekʷsperoes (plural vocative)
weksperom (accusative singular)
wekʷsperom (accusative singular)
weksperoms (accusative plural)
wekʷsperoms (accusative plural)
weksperosyo (genitive singular)
wekʷsperosyo (genitive singular)
weksperoHom (genitive plural)
wekʷsperoHom (genitive plural)
weksperead (ablative singular)
wekʷsperead (ablative singular)
weksperomos (ablative plural)
wekʷsperomos (ablative plural)
weksperoey (dative singular)
wekʷsperoey (dative singular)
weksperomos (dative plural)
wekʷsperomos (dative plural)
weksperey (locative singular)
wekʷsperey (locative singular)
weksperoy (locative singular)
wekʷsperoy (locative singular)
weksperoysu (locative plural)
wekʷsperoysu (locative plural)
weksperōys (instrumental plural)
wekʷsperōys (instrumental plural)

Armenian:

Old Armenian: գիշեր (gišer)

Proto-Balto-Slavic: *wékeras (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Celtic: *weskʷeros (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Germanic: *westraz (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Hellenic: *wésperos

Ancient Greek: ἕσπερος (hésperos)

Proto-Italic: *wesperos

Latin: vesper (see there for further descendants)

Possibly a compound of the unknown element *we- and the zero-grade of the noun *kʷséps (“night”). The first element has been connected with Latin vē- in vē-sanus (“mad”), although this is rejected by De Vaan. The original meaning could have been "(stretching) towards the night".


*h₂éǵ-e-ti (thematic root present)

Proto-Italic: *agdlom?

⇒ Latin: (co)āgulum (see there for further descendants)

*h₂eǵ-i-no- (“of a goat; goat-skin”)

Proto-Balto-Slavic: *āˀźina

Lithuanian: oženà f (“goat-skin”), ožìnis (“goat”, adj.)

Proto-Slavic: *azьno n (“goat-skin”) (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Indo-Iranian:

Proto-Indo-Aryan:

Sanskrit: अजिन n (ajína, “skin (of an animal, esp. goat), hide; pelt, fur; leather bag”)

→⇒ Telugu: అజినము (ajinamu, “skin”)

Proto-Iranian:

Avestan: 𐬍𐬰𐬀𐬉𐬥𐬀 (īzaēna, “leathern”)

*h₂éǵ-mn̥ ~ *h₂ǵ-mén-s

Proto-Hellenic: *ákʰmə

⇒ Aeolic Greek: ἄχματα (ákhmata)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *Háȷ́ma

Proto-Indo-Aryan: *Háȷ́ma

Sanskrit: अज्मन् (ájman)

Proto-Italic: *agmən

Latin: agmen

⇒ Latin: exāmen (see there for further descendants)

*h₂óǵ-mo-s (“drive, path”)

>? Proto-Balto-Slavic: *agnas

Lithuanian: agnùs (“agile, energetic”)

Proto-Hellenic: *agós

Ancient Greek: ἀγός (agós, “leader”)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *Haȷ́ás (“leader; goat”) (see there for further descendants)

*h₂éǵ-ro-s (“field, pasturage”)

*h₂eǵ-ro- (“hunt, slaughter”)

Proto-Celtic: *agrom (“slaughter, battle”) (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Hellenic:

desctree

Ancient Greek: ἄγρα (ágra, “hunt”), ᾰ̓́γρη (ágrē) — Ionic
Greek: άγρα (ágra)

Proto-Indo-Iranian:

desc

⇒ Avestan: 𐬀𐬰𐬭𐬋𐬛𐬀𐬌𐬜𐬍 (azrōdaⁱδī, “hunt”)

*h₂eḱs- (“axis”)

*h₂ǵ-es- (post-PIE)

>? Proto-Germanic: *kas-

Proto-Italic: *gezō

Faliscan: 𐌊𐌄𐌔𐌄𐌕 (keset)

Latin: gerō (see there for further descendants)

⇒ Latin: gestō (see there for further descendants)

desctree

⇒ Proto-Celtic: *ambaxtos
Proto-Brythonic: *ammaɨθ
Old Breton: ambaith
Cornish: ammeth
Middle Welsh: amaeth
Welsh: amaeth
Old Irish: amos, amsach (perhaps borrowed from Brythonic)
Irish: amhas
Gaulish: ambaxtos
→ Latin: ambactus, ambaxtus (see there for further descendants)
→ Proto-Germanic: *ambahtaz (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Hellenic: *aktós

Ancient Greek: ἐπακτός (epaktós)

Proto-Italic: *aktos

Latin: āctus (see there for further descendants)

*h₂éǵ-tōr ~ *h₂ǵ-trés

Proto-Hellenic: *áktōr

Ancient Greek: ἄκτωρ (áktōr)

Proto-Italic: *aktōr

Latin: actor (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *HáštraH (see there for further descendants)

Unsorted formations:

Indo-Aryan:

Sanskrit:

desc

Sanskrit: आजि (āji, “match, competition”)

Iranian:

Classical Persian: آژیانه (āžiyāna, “the marbled field or ground”)

Classical Persian: آژینه (āžīna, “the iron tool which releated to axile”)

Zazaki: hêga (hēgā, “ground, earth”) (maybe from un-iranian roots)

Proto-Tocharian: *āk

Tocharian A: āk

Tocharian B: āk

Proto-Tocharian: *ekäñye- (possibly)

Tocharian A: akäṃtsune

Tocharian B: ekaññe

Proto-Tocharian: *āk-

Tocharian A: āk-

Tocharian B: āk-

Sanskrit: अज् (aj)

→ Proto-Uralic: *aja- (see there for further descendants)


-dʰrom

-dʰrom (nominative singular)
-dʰroy (dual nominative)
-dʰrom (singular vocative)
-dʰroy (dual vocative)
-dʰrom (accusative singular)
-dʰroy (accusative dual)
-dʰrosyo (genitive singular)
-dʰroHom (genitive plural)
-dʰread (ablative singular)
-dʰromos (ablative plural)
-dʰroey (dative singular)
-dʰromos (dative plural)
-dʰrey (locative singular)
-dʰroy (locative singular)
-dʰroysu (locative plural)
-dʰrōys (instrumental plural)

Proto-Hellenic: *-tʰron, *-tʰrē

Ancient Greek: -θρον (-thron), -θρη (-thrē)

Proto-Italic: *-ðrom, *-ðrā

Latin: -brum, -bra

Variant of *-trom.
Sometimes hypothesized to have developed from assimilation to a preceding voiced aspirate (compare Bartholomae's law in Indo-Iranian). Sihler describes this as the usual explanation and considers it "the only remotely plausible" one if the *t- forms of the suffix are original, but says it is problematic, noting that this form of the suffix is not attested in contexts like Greek λέκτρον (léktron) (from Proto-Indo-European *legʰ-) even though, under this hypothesis, the *-dʰ-initial variants would have originated in words like this.
Based on the contexts in which it occurs, Olsen 1988 argues that it actually originated from coalescence of a voiceless laryngeal (*h₁ or *h₂) with the following *-t-, initially resulting in a voiceless aspirate, which is proposed to have merged with the outcome of voiced aspirates in the languages in which this allomorph is attested.


-tlom

-tlom (nominative singular)
-tloy (dual nominative)
-tlom (singular vocative)
-tloy (dual vocative)
-tlom (accusative singular)
-tloy (accusative dual)
-tlosyo (genitive singular)
-tloHom (genitive plural)
-tlead (ablative singular)
-tlomos (ablative plural)
-tloey (dative singular)
-tlomos (dative plural)
-tley (locative singular)
-tloy (locative singular)
-tloysu (locative plural)
-tlōys (instrumental plural)

Proto-Balto-Slavic: *-tla(s)

Proto-Baltic: *-tla

Lithuanian: *-kla

Proto-Slavic: *-slo

Proto-Celtic: *-tlom

Proto-Germanic: *-ilaz (merged with *-dʰlom via Verner's law) (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Hellenic: *-tlon

Ancient Greek: -τλον (-tlon)

Proto-Italic: *-klom

Latin: -clum

Latin: -culum (by anaptyxis)

Latin: -crum

Latin: -ulum


-dʰlom

-dʰlom (nominative singular)
-dʰloy (dual nominative)
-dʰlom (singular vocative)
-dʰloy (dual vocative)
-dʰlom (accusative singular)
-dʰloy (accusative dual)
-dʰlosyo (genitive singular)
-dʰloHom (genitive plural)
-dʰlead (ablative singular)
-dʰlomos (ablative plural)
-dʰloey (dative singular)
-dʰlomos (dative plural)
-dʰley (locative singular)
-dʰloy (locative singular)
-dʰloysu (locative plural)
-dʰlōys (instrumental plural)

Proto-Balto-Slavic: *-dla < *-dʰlom or *-tlom

Proto-Slavic: *-dlo (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Germanic: *-ilaz (merged with *-tlóm) (see there for further descendants)

Hellenic:

Ancient Greek: -θλον (-thlon)

Ancient Greek: -θλη (-thlē)

Italic:

Latin: -bulum (by anaptyxis) (see there for further descendants)

Latin: -bula (by anaptyxis) (see there for further descendants)

Latin: -ula (when compounded as *-gdʰl-)


Anatolian:

Hittite: [script needed] (išḫunawar, “sinew, string”)

Armenian:

Old Armenian: նեարդ (neard)

Armenian: նյարդ (nyard)

Proto-Germanic: *senawō (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Hellenic:

Ancient Greek: νεῦρον (neûron) (< *sneh₁wr-o-)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *snáHwr̥

Proto-Indo-Aryan: *snáHwr̥

Sanskrit: स्नावन् (snā́van, snāván)

Proto-Iranian: *snáHwr̥

Avestan: 𐬯𐬥𐬁𐬎𐬎𐬀𐬭𐬆 (snāuuar^ə)

Persian: سنور (sanavvar, “string, weapon”)

Ossetian:

Iron: нуар (nwar)

Digor: науӕр (nawær)

Proto-Italic: *(s)nēuros (< *sneh₁wr-o-)

Latin: nervus (< *neuros by metathesis)

Tocharian:

Tocharian B: ṣñor

From *(s)neh₁- (“to twist threads, spin, weave”) + *-wr̥ (substantifying suffix).


der-

*dér-ti ~ *dr-énti (root present)

Proto-Balto-Slavic: *derˀtéi

Lithuanian: dérti

Proto-Slavic: *dertì (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Germanic: *teraną (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Hellenic: *dérō

Ancient Greek: δέρω (dérō)

*dr̥-néH-ti ~ *dr̥-nH-énti (néH-present?)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *dr̥náHti

Proto-Indo-Aryan: *dr̥náHti

Sanskrit: दृणाति (dṛṇā́ti)

Proto-Iranian: *dr̥náHti

Avestan: 𐬛𐬆𐬭𐬆𐬥𐬆𐬧𐬙𐬌 (dər^ənəṇti)

Khotanese: [script needed] (dar(r)-)

Baluchi: درت (dirt, “to tear up”), در (dirr)/ دن (din-)

Kurdish:

Central Kurdish: دڕین (diřīn), دڕ (diř-)

Northern Kurdish: dirîn (dirīn), dir (dir-)

Southern Kurdish: دڕین (diřīn), دڕ (diř-)

Zaza-Gorani:

Gurani: دڕیای (diřāy, “to tear”), در (dir-)

desc

Zazaki: dirnayen (dirnāyan, “to tear off, cut off”), diřa (dirrā-)

Middle Persian: (/darrīdan/)

Book Pahlavi script: [Book Pahlavi needed] (SDKWNtn'), [Book Pahlavi needed] (dlytn')

Lurish:

Northern Luri: درنییاْ (derniye)

Bakhtiari: درنیڌن (derniđen)

Southern Luri: درنیڌن (derniđen)

*dr̥-nh₂-é-ti ~ dr̥-nh₂-é-nti (nh₂-present?)

Proto-Germanic: *turnaną

Gothic: *𐍄𐌰𐌿𐍂𐌽𐌰𐌽 (*taurnan) (in 𐌰𐍆𐍄𐌰𐌿𐍂𐌽𐌰𐌽 (aftaurnan), 𐌳𐌹𐍃𐍄𐌰𐌿𐍂𐌽𐌰𐌽 (distaurnan))

*dér-mn̥ ~ dr̥-mnés (deverbal)

Proto-Hellenic: *dérmə

Ancient Greek: δέρμα (dérma)

*dr̥-tis

Proto-Germanic: *turþiz (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Hellenic: *də́rtis

Ancient Greek: δάρσις (dársis)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *dŕ̥tiš

Proto-Indo-Aryan: *dŕ̥tiṣ

Sanskrit: दृति (dṛ́ti)

*dr̥-nos

Proto-Celtic: *darnos, *darnā

Proto-Brythonic: *darn

Middle Breton: darn

Cornish: darn

Middle Welsh: darn

Welsh: darn

Gaulish: *darnā

→ French: darne (“piece, slice of fish”)

Proto-Germanic: *turnaz (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Slavic: *dь̀rnъ (see there for further descendants)

Unsorted formations:

Albanian: djerr

Proto-Balto-Slavic: *dírāˀtei

Lithuanian: dìrti/dir̃ti

Proto-Slavic: *dьràti (see there for further descendants)

>? Proto-Celtic:

Old Irish: drécht (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Germanic: *trinnaną (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Germanic: *trannijaną (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *dr̥Hyátay

Proto-Indo-Aryan: *dr̥Hyátay

Sanskrit: दीर्यते (dīryáte)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *dr̥Hakas (perhaps)

Proto-Iranian: *dr̥Hakah

Classical Persian: دره (dirra, “skin; a kind of Islamic punishment which related to sewing skin of the sinful person”)

Proto-Albanian: *darda

Albanian: derdh

Albanian: dardhë

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *dar-

Proto-Indo-Aryan: *dar-

Sanskrit: दॄ (dṝ)


Proto-Armenian:

>? Old Armenian: հողմ (hołm)

Proto-Hellenic: *ánemos (“wind”) (see there for further descendants)

desctree

Proto-Italic: *anamos (“spirit, soul”), *anemos
Latin: animus (see there for further descendants)
⇒ Latin: anima (“breath, wind, spirit”) (see there for further descendants)
Oscan: 𐌀𐌍𐌀𐌌𐌞𐌌 (anamúm, accusative singular)

From *h₂enh₁- + *-mos. Compare *h₂énh₁-mn̥, whence Proto-Celtic *anaman.


Armenian:

Old Armenian: այգ (ayg)

Armenian: այգ (ayg)

Proto-Hellenic: *auhṓs
Ancient Greek: ἠώς (ēṓs)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *Hušā́s (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Italic: *auzōs
Latin: aurōra (with ā-stem extension)

առավոտ

Old Armenian: առաւօտ (aṙawōt), աւօտ (awōt)


méǵh₂s

m̥ǵh₂- (oblique stem)
méǵh₂s (nominative singular)
méǵh₂h₁ (dual nominative)
méǵh₂h₁e (dual nominative)
méǵh₂ (singular vocative)
méǵh₂h₁ (dual vocative)
méǵh₂h₁e (dual vocative)
méǵh₂m̥ (accusative singular)
méǵh₂h₁ (accusative dual)
méǵh₂h₁e (accusative dual)
méǵh₂m̥s (accusative plural)
m̥ǵh₂és (genitive singular)
m̥ǵh₂és (ablative singular)
m̥ǵh₂mós (ablative plural)
m̥ǵh₂éy (dative singular)
m̥ǵh₂mós (dative plural)
méǵh₂ (locative singular)
méǵh₂i (locative singular)
m̥ǵh₂sú (locative plural)
m̥ǵh₂éh₁ (instrumental singular)
m̥ǵh₂mís (instrumental plural)
méǵh₂ih₂ (nominative singular)
méǵh₂ih₂h₁ (dual nominative)
méǵh₂ih₂ (singular vocative)
méǵh₂ih₂h₁ (dual vocative)
méǵh₂ih₂m̥ (accusative singular)
méǵh₂ih₂h₁ (accusative dual)
m̥ǵh₂yéh₂s (genitive singular)
m̥ǵh₂yéh₂s (ablative singular)
m̥ǵh₂yéh₂ (locative singular)
m̥ǵh₂yéh₂i (locative singular)
m̥ǵh₂yéh₂h₁ (instrumental singular)
méǵh₂ (nominative singular)
méǵh₂ih₁ (dual nominative)
méǵh₂h₂ (nominative plural)
méǵh₂ih₁ (dual vocative)
méǵh₂h₂ (plural vocative)
méǵh₂ (accusative singular)
méǵh₂ih₁ (accusative dual)
méǵh₂h₂ (accusative plural)

Proto-Albanian: *madza

Albanian: madh

Proto-Albanian: *mai

Albanian: më (“more”)

Proto-Anatolian:

desc

Hittite: 𒈨𒂊𒅅𒆠𒅖 (me-e-ek-ki-iš, “numerous”)

Proto-Armenian:

Old Armenian: մեծ (mec)

Armenian: մեծ (mec)

Proto-Hellenic: *mégas, *əga- (< *m̥ǵh₂-), *əgān (< *m̥ǵéh₂m)

Ancient Greek: μέγας (mégas), ἀγα- (aga-), ἄγᾱν (ágān)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *maȷ́ʰā́ (see there for further descendants)

Phrygian: μεκας (mekas /megas/, “great”, dat.sg./pl.)

Proto-Tocharian: *mākā (see there for further descendants)

>? Proto-Celtic: *magos

plain, field; see there for further descendants


Proto-Celtic: *kaikos (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Germanic: *haihaz (see there for further descendants)

⇒ Proto-Indo-Iranian: *kaykaras

Proto-Indo-Aryan: *kaykaras

Sanskrit: केकर (kekara)

Proto-Italic: *kaikos (see there for further descendants)


márkos

non-ablauting (romanization)
márkos (nominative singular)
márkoes (nominative plural)
márke (singular vocative)
márkoes (plural vocative)
márkom (accusative singular)
márkoms (accusative plural)
márkosyo (genitive singular)
márkoHom (genitive plural)
márkead (ablative singular)
márkomos (ablative plural)
márkoey (dative singular)
márkomos (dative plural)
márkey (locative singular)
márkoy (locative singular)
márkoysu (locative plural)
márkōys (instrumental plural)

Proto-Celtic: *markos (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Germanic: *marhaz (see there for further descendants)

Equus ferus caballus
Equus ferus caballus

Equus ferus przewalskii
Equus ferus przewalskii

(possibly) wild horse (Equus ferus przewalskii or Equus ferus ferus)


>? Proto-Albanian: *alanā, *ulnā

⇒ Proto-Albanian: *bōrei ulnā

Albanian: bërryl

⇒ Proto-Albanian: *ulnā bōra

Albanian: ylber

Albanian: llanë, llërë

Proto-Celtic: *olīnā (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Germanic: *alinō, *alīnō (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Hellenic: *ōlenā

Ancient Greek: ὠλένη (ōlénē), ὠλήν (ōlḗn), ὠλλόν (ōllón)

Greek: ωλένη (oléni)

Proto-Italic: *olenā

Latin: ulna (see there for further descendants)

Unsorted formations:

Proto-Armenian:

desctree

Old Armenian: ողն (ołn)
Armenian: ող (oł)

Old Armenian: ուլն (uln)
Armenian: ուլ (ul)

Old Armenian: ուղուկ (ułuk)

Old Armenian: ամոլ (amol) (possibly)
Armenian: ամոլ (amol), ամոլ (amol) — Mush, Salmas, Van, յ̵ամոլ (hªamol) — Alashkert, համօլ (hamōl) — Erzurum, ամուլ (amul) — Moks, Vozm, ա՛մբօլ (ámbōl) — Ganja, Ararat, ա՛մբուլ (ámbul) — Karabakh
→ Turkish: hamol

Old Armenian: իլ (il) (possibly)
Armenian: իլ (il)
→ Chagatai: یلنك (ileng)

Old Armenian: ալի (ali) (possibly)

Old Armenian: աղեղն (ałełn) (possibly)
Armenian: աղեղ (ałeł)

Proto-Balto-Slavic: *alk-, *elk-

Latvian: olekts, elkonis

Lithuanian: úolektis, alkū́nė, elkū́nė

Old Prussian: arašnīs, woaltis, woltis, alkunis

Proto-Slavic: *olkъ

Proto-Slavic: *olkъtь (“elbow”) (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Celtic: *olēnā

Proto-Brythonic:

Welsh: olwyn (“wheel”)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *Haratníš (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Tocharian: *āläi

Tocharian A: āle

Tocharian B: alyiye


sm̥-

Proto-Armenian:

desc

Old Armenian: ամ- (am-, “at, with, together”)

Proto-Hellenic:

Ancient Greek: ἁ- (ha-, “together”)

desctree

⇒ Ancient Greek: ἅπαξ (hápax, “once”)
Greek: άπαξ (ápax)
French: hapax, apax

Proto-Italic:

Latin: sem-, sim-

⇒ Latin: semper (“always”) (see there for further descendants)

⇒ Latin: simītu

⇒ Latin: simplex (“single, simple”) (see there for further descendants)

⇒ Latin: simplus (“simple”) (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Indo-Iranian:

Proto-Indo-Aryan:

Sanskrit: स (sa-, “together, with”)

Proto-Iranian: *ha-

Avestan: 𐬵𐬀- (ha-, “with, together”)

Old Persian: 𐏃 (h /ha-/)

Zero grade form of the numeral stem *sem- (“one, together”).

ἑκοτόν — ArcadocypriotGreek: εκατόMariupol Greek: като́→ English: hecato-

saȷ́ʰásram

*sm̥-ǵʰéslo- (“(one) thousand”) (with *ǵʰéslom)

santeros

*sm̥-teros (“one other”) (with the suffix *-teros to form adjectives)


-iHnos

-iHnos (nominative singular)
-iHnoes (nominative plural)
-iHne (singular vocative)
-iHnoes (plural vocative)
-iHnom (accusative singular)
-iHnoms (accusative plural)
-iHnosyo (genitive singular)
-iHnoHom (genitive plural)
-iHnead (ablative singular)
-iHnomos (ablative plural)
-iHnoey (dative singular)
-iHnomos (dative plural)
-iHney (locative singular)
-iHnoy (locative singular)
-iHnoysu (locative plural)
-iHnōys (instrumental plural)
-iHnām (accusative singular)
-iHnom (nominative singular)
-iHnoy (dual nominative)
-iHnom (singular vocative)
-iHnoy (dual vocative)
-iHnoy (accusative dual)

Armenian:

Old Armenian: -այն (-ayn), -ին (-in)

Proto-Balto-Slavic: *-īˀnas

Lithuanian: -inas

Latvian: -īns, -ains

Proto-Slavic: *-inъ (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Celtic: *-īnos (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Germanic: *-īnaz (adjective of material) (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Hellenic:

Ancient Greek: -ινος (-inos) (forms adjectives with the sense of 'of or pertaining to', including adjectives of material)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *-iHnas

Proto-Indo-Aryan:

Sanskrit: -ईन (-īna)

Proto-Iranian: *-a-yHnah (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Italic: *-īnos (see there for further descendants)


sent-

*sént-ti *sn̥t-énti

Proto-Armenian: *hentʰ- ~ *hant-

>? Old Armenian: *ընթամ (*əntʻam)

⇒ Old Armenian: ընթաց (əntʻacʻ, “way”)

desc

⇒ Old Armenian: ընթանամ (əntʻanam, “to run”) (see there for further descendants)

*sn̥t-sḱe-ti (sḱe-present)

Proto-Armenian:

>? Old Armenian: *անցեմ (*ancʻem)

⇒ Old Armenian: անցանեմ (ancʻanem, “to pass”) (see there for further descendants)

*sont-éye-ti (eye-causative)

Proto-Germanic: *sandijaną (“to send”) (see there for further descendants)

*sént-o-s

Proto-Germanic: *sinþaz (“journey, path”)

*sént-u-s ~ *sn̥t-éw-s

Proto-Celtic: *sentus (“path, way”) (see there for further descendants)


sent-

Brill Publishers
Helmut Rix
Lexikon der indogermanischen Verben

*sént-ye-ti ~ *sént-yo-nti or *sn̥t-yé-ti ~ *sn̥t-yó-nti (ye-present)

Proto-Italic: *sentjō

Latin: sentiō (“to feel, to perceive”) (see there for further descendants)

*sḗnt-s-t ~ *sént-s-n̥t (s-aorist)

Latin: sēnsī (see there for further descendants)

*sn̥t-éh₁ye-ti (eh₁(ye)-stative)

Proto-Balto-Slavic: *sintḗˀtei

Samogitian: sintietė

⇒ Proto-Slavic: *sęťь (see there for further descendants)

*sn̥t-neh₂-ti (neh₂-iterative)

Proto-Germanic: *sunnōną

⇒ Proto-Germanic: *sinnaną (“to consider, contemplate”) (see there for further descendants)

⇒ Proto-Germanic: *sinnaz (“sense, meaning”) (see there for further descendants)


Proto-Albanian: *mū-

Albanian: mi m

Armenian:

Old Armenian: մուկն (mukn) (possibly from *muh₂s-m̥ (accusative singular))

Armenian: մուկ (muk)

Proto-Balto-Slavic: *mū́ˀšis (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Germanic: *mūs (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Hellenic: *mū́s

Ancient Greek: μῦς (mûs)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *múHs (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Italic: *mūs

Latin: mūs (see there for further descendants)


yewg-

*yéwg-t ~ *yug-ént (athematic root aorist)

Proto-Indo-Iranian:

Proto-Indo-Aryan:

Sanskrit: अयोक् (áyok)

Proto-Iranian:

Avestan: 𐬫𐬀𐬊𐬔𐬆𐬝 (yaogət̰, 3.sg.aor.act.inj.)

Proto-Hellenic:

q

reshaped to s-aorist, with the present <i class="Polyt mention" lang="grc">ζεύγνυμι</i> (zeúgnumi) formed with the same full-grade root

⇒ Ancient Greek: ἔζευξα (ézeuxa) (reshaped to s-aorist, with the present ζεύγνυμι (zeúgnumi) formed with the same full-grade root)

*yu-né-g-ti ~ *yu-n-g-énti (nasal-infix present)

*yówg-yo-s

desc

Proto-Germanic: *jaukiją (“draft animal”)

Old Norse: eykr

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *yáwgyas

Proto-Indo-Aryan: *yáwgyas

Sanskrit: योग्य (yógya)

*yéwg-mn̥

Proto-Hellenic:

Ancient Greek: ζεῦγμα (zeûgma)

*yéwg-o-s

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *yáwgas (see there for further descendants)

*yéwg-os ~ *yéwg-es-os

*yug-ó-m (“yoke”)

Proto-Hellenic:

Ancient Greek: ἄζυξ (ázux)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *ayúgas

Proto-Indo-Aryan: *ayúgas

Sanskrit: अयुग (ayúga)

*yug-tó-s

*yéwg-tro-m

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *yáwktram (see there for further descendants)

*yewg-tér-

Proto-Indo-Iranian:

Proto-Indo-Aryan:

Sanskrit: योक्तृ (yoktṛ́)

Proto-Hellenic:

Ancient Greek: ζευκτήρ (zeuktḗr)

Unsorted formations:

Sanskrit:

Sanskrit: युग्म (yugma)

Sanskrit: युज् (yúj)

Sanskrit: युज्य (yújya)

Sanskrit: युग्य (yugya)

Celtic: *kom-yungis < zero grade present stem *yung-

Old Irish: cuing

Irish: cuing

Manx: quing

Scottish Gaelic: cuing

An extension of *yew- according to Pokorny.


swéḱuros

non-ablauting (romanization)
swéḱuros (nominative singular)
swéḱuroes (nominative plural)
swéḱure (singular vocative)
swéḱuroes (plural vocative)
swéḱurom (accusative singular)
swéḱuroms (accusative plural)
swéḱurosyo (genitive singular)
swéḱuroHom (genitive plural)
swéḱuread (ablative singular)
swéḱuromos (ablative plural)
swéḱuroey (dative singular)
swéḱuromos (dative plural)
swéḱurey (locative singular)
swéḱuroy (locative singular)
swéḱuroysu (locative plural)
swéḱurōys (instrumental plural)

Proto-Albanian: *swexura (assimilation from expected *swetsura)

Albanian: vjehërr

Proto-Balto-Slavic: *swéśuras

Lithuanian: šẽšuras

Proto-Slavic: *svekrъ (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Germanic: *swehuraz (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Hellenic: *hwékuros

gloss

Ancient Greek: ἑκυρός (hekurós) (the oxytonesis must be a Greek innovation)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *swáćuras (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Italic: *swekuros (see there for further descendants)


pstḗn

pstḗn (nominative singular)
psténes (nominative plural)
pstén (singular vocative)
psténes (plural vocative)
psténm̥ (accusative singular)
psténm̥s (accusative plural)
pstnés (genitive singular)
pstnóHom (genitive plural)
pstnés (ablative singular)
pstn̥mós (ablative plural)
pstnéy (dative singular)
pstn̥mós (dative plural)
pstén (locative singular)
psténi (locative singular)
pstn̥sú (locative plural)
pstn̥mís (instrumental plural)

Proto-Armenian: *stēn

Old Armenian: ստին (stin, “breast”)

Proto-Hellenic: *stḗn

desc

⇒ Ancient Greek: στήνιον (stḗnion, “breast”)

⇒ Proto-Hellenic: *pərsténos (“having protruding breasts”)

Ancient Greek: παρθένος (parthénos), (Laconian) παρσένος (parsénos, “virgin, girl, young woman”)

Proto-Tocharian: *päścäne (< CCC epenthesis, *psténh₁(e) (dual))

Tocharian A: päśśäṃ

Tocharian B: päścane du (“woman’s breasts”)

Unknown; possibly related with Ancient Greek στῆθος (stêthos, “breast”).

m+

spenô

nipple; see there for further descendants

پستان

Middle Persian: pystʾn' (pestān, “breast”)

spenis

Proto-Balto-Slavic: *spenis; Old Prussian


wet-

*wét-s

Proto-Anatolian:

Hittite: 𒈬𒍝 (MU-za /witta/, “year”)

desc

Lycian: [script needed] (uhe/i-, “year”)

*wétos (see there for further descendants)

*wetostos

Proto-Italic: *wetostos

Latin: vetustus

*wet-só-s

Proto-Anatolian:

Luwian:

Cuneiform script: 𒈬𒅖 (MU-iš /uššiš/)

Anatolian Hieroglyphs script: 𔑺𔓉𔐤 (u-si-na /usin/, acc.sg.)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *watsás (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Italic: *wessos (“of the year”), *wessōnā (“lady of the year”)

Marsian: uesune

Umbrian: 𐌅𐌄𐌔𐌖𐌍𐌄 (vesune)

*wétrus

Proto-Germanic: *weþruz (see there for further descendants)

*wet-us-o-s

Proto-Balto-Slavic: *wétušas (see there for further descendants)

*wetelos

Proto-Hellenic: *wétalon

Ancient Greek: ἔταλον (étalon), ἔτελον (ételon)

Proto-Italic: *wetelos

Latin: vitulus (see there for further descendants)

Umbrian: vitlu

*pér-ut-i (“last year”) (with *per- (“through”))


h₂ébōl

Proto-Balto-Slavic: *āˀbōl (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Celtic: *abūl (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Germanic: *aplaz (see there for further descendants)

⇒? Oscan: *Abella (toponym)

Connection with certain Indo-Iranian terms has been suggested:
* Pashayi wālī (perhaps < Proto-Indo-Aryan *abalikā-);
* Sogdian [script needed] (ʾmʾnk /āmang?/, “apple”), Munji [script needed] (āmenga), Yidgha [script needed] (amuno), Pashto مڼه (maná, “apple”), Shughni мӯн (mūn), му̊н (mū̊n, “apple”), all < Proto-Iranian *amarnaka- ~ *amarnā-, possibly reflecting earlier *abarna/ā- (via assimilation in nasality from *b..n to *m..n), ultimately from PIE *h₂ebe/ol-no/eh₂-. This hypothetical Proto-Iranian descendant might be the source of Proto-Finnic *omëna (“apple”) and Livonian umārz, displaying variation between coda *-n- and *-r- as would be expected from borrowing from a source with *-rn-.
There are several indications that the word for “apple” did not belong to the oldest layer of the Indo-European protolanguage:
# The word is limited to the West Indo-European languages
# It contains the phoneme */b/, which had marginal distribution in PIE
# It somewhat resembles the South European word for “apple” (PIE or pseudo-PIE *méh₂lom: Latin mālum, Ancient Greek μῆλον (mêlon)), which might suggest a substrate or wanderwort origin of both.
This all points that the word potentially entered the Indo-European speech continuum some time after the dissolution of the parent language.
Less substantiated theories and connections
* There are several proposed connections with Semitic. These are often posited in a framework of a theoretical Atlantic language with Semitic affinities, or by pointing out overlapping mythological motifs surrounding apples suggesting some kind of cultural sharing. This is the viewpoint marked by Dozy, Vennemann, Blažek, and others, typically with connections to the root ʾ-b-l, often with Arabic or South Semitic/Ethiopian comparisons. See Arabic أُبُلَّة (ʔubulla, “figs pressed in a mass”, literally “a bulk or mass”) an obscure term, أُبُل (ʔubul, “dry herbage upon which camels fatten”). Alternatively, an extension of Orel and Stolbova's reconstructive work, connecting back to an Afro-Asiatic root for appendages, genitals, testicles, a mass, globe or round object, still found in Ethiopian languages, potentially later being extended to fruit by comparison. Beyond proposed connections featuring /ʔ/, there are potential suggestions with /ʕ/: Arabic عَبْل (ʕabl, “a bulk or mass; applied to plant life, to be ripe for harvest or with full fruits, to be full of leaves and fruits”), Arabic عَبَال (ʕabāl, “Eglantine, Rosa rubiginosa, and similar plants; Rose Hip, bright red bulbous fruit, with a sweet or tart flavor like apples”), and Tigre ዖበል (ʿobäl, “Nile tamarisk, Tamarix nilotica”). To bolster this avenue and the distant relationship with Proto-Indo-European, the Laryngeal Theory reconstructs the /*h₂/ phoneme as a pharyngeal fricative consonant, basing comparison of /ħ/ and /ʕ/ as an a-coloring phonetic conditioner in contemporary languages, most notably Semitic languages.
* Gamkrelidze and Ivanov argue that the Hittite cognate is 𒊭𒈠𒇻 (ša-ma-lu /šam(a)lu-/, “apple”), which renders the original PIE form as *samlu- (“apple”) or *(s)h₂eml- (“apple”). The original cluster *-ml- remained as such in Anatolian, but yielded *-bl- in the other IE languages which otherwise typically finds the phoneme */b/ rare or non-existing. Such a reconstruction is not attested but in a few roots, such as the dubiously constructed root *bel-/*mel-. The initial /s/ would be an example of the Proto-Indo-European s-mobile, not being necessary to appear in other descendants. The Hittite word is however paired with the Hattic 𒊭𒀀𒊀𒀜 (ša-a-waₐ-at /šawat/, “apple, apple tree”) with the usual Hattic /t/ = Hittite /l/ correspondence, easily being a potential borrowing from Hattic or vice versa. The form *(s)h₂eml- may also be connected via metathesis with Proto-Kartvelian *msxal- (“pear”); note in particular the unmetathesized *sxmarṭl- (“medlar”)

cog

šùnobelė

*ḱun-h₂ebōl-eh₂ f (“a kind of plant”, literally “dog's apple”)


met-

*met-eti

Proto-Celtic: *meteti

Proto-Italic: *metō

Latin: metō

*met-el-

desc

Proto-Celtic: *metelā (“reapers (collective)”)

Proto-Brythonic: *medel

Middle Irish: methel

Irish: meitheal

*met-l̥-yom (possibly) (with secondary collective suffix *-yom)

Ancient Greek: μέταλλον (métallon, “mine, quarry”) (quarries generally require measured cutting)

*mot-i-

Proto-Italic:

Latin: mateola (“wooden hammer or agricultural implement”)

Proto-Germanic: *maþilō (“plough”)

Proto-Balto-Slavic:

Proto-Slavic: *motỳka (“hoe”)

*mot-né-

Proto-Germanic: *mattukaz (“ploughshare, mattock”)

Part of the same group of roots as *meh₁- (“to measure”), *med- (“to estimate, judge”), possibly also *meh₂- (“to grow, mature”), *medʰi- (“middle, between”), *meǵ-h₂- (“great, big”), all with a sense of "measurement, estimation > size, distance, amount".

to cut (by measure) (with an inherent sense of by measurement or time: "to cut down" > "to mow"; "to cut into" > "plow")


*h₃yébʰ-e-ti (thematic root present)

*h₃yḗbʰ-s-t ~ *h₃yébʰ-s-n̥t (s-aorist)

Proto-Tocharian: *yäp-

Tocharian A: yowäs

Tocharian B: yopsa

*h₃yémbʰ-ti ~ *h₃imbʰ-énti (nasal infix) (< *h₃inébʰ-ti ~ *h₃imbʰ-énti)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *Hyámbdʰi

Proto-Iranian: *Hyámbdi

⇒ Proto-Iranian: *āHyámbdi

q

or from another root <i class="Latn mention" lang="ine-pro">*yeb⁽ʰ⁾-</i>

Sogdian: (/āyamb-, āyanp-/, “to pervert, deceive, seduce”) (or from another root *yeb⁽ʰ⁾-)

Old Sogdian script: 𐼀𐼀𐼊𐼎𐼔- (ʾʾynp-)

Syriac script: ܐܝܡܦ- (ʾymp-)

*h₃yobʰ-éye-ti (eye-causative)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *Hyābʰáyati

Proto-Iranian: *Hyābáyati

⇒ Proto-Iranian: *upaHyābáyati

desc

Khwarezmian: [script needed] (byʾβydʾh, “to impregnate”, 3sg.impf.)

Proto-Anatolian: *Hebos

Luwian: *ipaš

⇒ Luwian: 𒄿𒉺𒆷𒀀𒋾 (i-pa-la-a-ti), 𒄿𒉺𒆷𒋾 (i-pa-la-ti /ipala/i-/, “left (hand)”)

⇒ Luwian: 𒄿𒉺𒆷𒀀𒋾𒅔 (i-pa-la-a-ti-i[n]), 𒄿𒉺𒆷𒀀𒋾𒂗 (i-pa-la-a-ti-en /ipalāt(i)-/, “sinisterness”)

⇒ Luwian: 𒄿𒉺𒈠𒀭𒍝𒀸𒋫 (i-pa-ma-an-za-aš-(ta) /ipama/i-/, “perverted, sinister”, dat.loc.pl.)

⇒ Luwian: *iparuš, *iparwaš

⇒ Luwian: 𒄿𒈦𒉿𒀸𒄩𒀸 ([i]-pár-wa-aš-ḫa-aš /iparwašḫaš/)

⇒ Luwian: 𒄿𒈦𒉿𒀸𒅆𒅖 c (i-pár-wa-aš-ši-iš /iparwaššaiš/, “western”)

⇒ Luwian: 𒀹𒄿𒉺𒋻𒈠 (𒀹i-pa-tar-ma /ipatarma/, “west”, nom.-acc.pl.)

⇒ Luwian: 𒀹𒄿𒉺𒋻𒈠𒅀𒀭 n ((𒀹)i-pa-tar-ma-ya-an /ipatarmayan/, “westward”, nom.-acc.pl.)

*h₃yébʰ-wr̥ ~ *h₃ibʰ-wéns

Proto-Anatolian: *Hebʷr̥-

Hittite: [script needed] (epurae-, “to go inside”)

>? Proto-Hellenic: *dzépʰuros (< *(d)yépʰur-os)

Ancient Greek: ζέφυρος (zéphuros), Ζέφυρος (Zéphuros) (see there for further descendants)

Mycenaean Greek: 𐀽𐁆𐀫 (ze-phu-ro /zephuros/, “the west wind”)

xlit

Казанскене, В. П.

Казанский, Н. Н.

>? Proto-Hellenic: *dzópʰos (< *(d)yópʰos)

Ancient Greek: ζόφος (zóphos)

*h₃éybʰ-eh₂ (metathesis)

desc

>? Proto-Germanic: *aibō (“family; village, district, region”)

Proto-West Germanic: *aibu

Old High German: -eiba

⇒ Old High German: Wetereiba

⇒ Old High German: Wingarteiba

Lombardic: -aib

⇒ Lombardic: Antaib

⇒ Lombardic: Burgundaib

Unsorted formations:

>? Illyrian:

→ Doric Greek: Οἴβαλος (Oíbalos, “belonging to the birth”)


plewd-

*plewd- (root present)

Balto-Slavic:

Latgalian: plyudi (“flood”)

Celtic:

Old Irish: luaidid

Proto-Germanic: *fleutaną (“to float, to stream”)

*plud-sḱé- (sḱe-present)

Balto-Slavic:

Lithuanian: plū́sti

*plewd-o-

Proto-Germanic: *fleutaz (“fast-running”)

Middle Dutch: vliet

Old Norse: fljótr

Icelandic: fljótur

Proto-Germanic: *fleutą (“stream”)

Old English: flēot

English: fleet

Middle Dutch: vliet

*plud-om

Proto-Germanic: *flutą

Old English: flot

Dutch: vlot (“raft”)

Old Norse: flot

Unsorted formations:

Proto-Germanic: *flutōną

Italic:

Latin: plaustrum


pnéwmn̥

pnéwmn̥ (nominative singular)
pnéwmō (collective nominative)
pnéwmn̥ (singular vocative)
pnéwmō (collective vocative)
pnéwmn̥ (accusative singular)
pnéwmō (accusative collective)
pnuméns (genitive singular)
pn̥wm̥nés (collective genitive)
pnuméns (ablative singular)
pn̥wm̥nés (ablative collective)
pnuméney (dative singular)
pn̥wm̥néy (collective dative)
pnumén (locative singular)
pnuméni (locative singular)
pnumén (collective locative)
pnuméni (collective locative)

Proto-Albanian: *pnew-ma

Albanian: *pnyjma

Albanian: frymë

Proto-Hellenic: *pnéumə

Ancient Greek: πνεῦμα (pneûma), πνεύμων (pneúmōn) (< collective)

Etymology tree
Proto-Indo-European *pnew-
Proto-Indo-European *-mn̥
Proto-Indo-European *pnéwmn̥
From *pnew- (“to breathe”) + *-mn̥ (action or result suffix).


pléwmō

plumn- (oblique stem)
pléwmō (nominative singular)
pléwmones (nominative plural)
pléwmon (singular vocative)
pléwmones (plural vocative)
pléwmonm̥ (accusative singular)
pléwmonm̥s (accusative plural)
pl̥wm̥nés (genitive singular)
pl̥wm̥nóHom (genitive plural)
pl̥wm̥nés (ablative singular)
plumn̥mós (ablative plural)
pl̥wm̥néy (dative singular)
plumn̥mós (dative plural)
plumén (locative singular)
pluméni (locative singular)
plumn̥sú (locative plural)
plumn̥mís (instrumental plural)

Proto-Hellenic: *pléwmōn

Ancient Greek: πλεύμων (pleúmōn)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *pláwmā

Proto-Indo-Aryan: *kláwmā (< earlier *pláwmā)

Sanskrit: क्लोमन् (klóman)

Proto-Italic: *plumō

Latin: pulmō (see there for further descendants)

Etymology tree
Proto-Indo-European *plew-
Proto-Indo-European *-mō
Proto-Indo-European *pléwmō
From *plew- (“to fly, flow, run”) + *-mō (agentive nominal suffix).


plutós

non-ablauting (romanization)
plutós (nominative singular)
plutóes (nominative plural)
pluté (singular vocative)
plutóes (plural vocative)
plutóm (accusative singular)
plutóms (accusative plural)
plutósyo (genitive singular)
plutóHom (genitive plural)
plutéad (ablative singular)
plutómos (ablative plural)
plutóey (dative singular)
plutómos (dative plural)
plutéy (locative singular)
plutóy (locative singular)
plutóysu (locative plural)
plutṓys (instrumental plural)
plutā́m (accusative singular)
plutóm (nominative singular)
plutóy (dual nominative)
plutóm (singular vocative)
plutóy (dual vocative)
plutóy (accusative dual)

Proto-Balto-Slavic: *plútas (see there for further descendants)

⇒ Proto-Balto-Slavic: *plūtei

Proto-Slavic: *plyti (sometimes derived from *pleh₃(w)-), *plùti (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Hellenic: *plutós

Ancient Greek: πλυτός (plutós)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *plutás

Proto-Indo-Aryan: *plutás

Sanskrit: प्लुत (plutá)

From *plew- (“to fly, flow, run”) + *-tós (deverbal adjectival suffix).


plew-

*plew-d-

*plew-k-

*plew-t-

*plewt-yom, *plowt-yom

Proto-Balto-Slavic: *pljáutja, *pláutja

desc

Latvian: plàuši (“lungs”, nom.pl.), plàuši

Lithuanian: plaũtis, plaũčiai (“lung”)

Proto-Slavic: *pľūťè, *plūťè (“lung”) (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Tocharian:

Tocharian B: plyuwai (“to float”)

*pléw-e-ti (thematic root present)

Proto-Hellenic: *pléwō

Ancient Greek: πλέω (pléō)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *pláwati (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Italic: *plowō

Latin: pluit (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Tocharian: *pläu-

Tocharian A: plu-

Tocharian B: plu-

*plow-éye-ti (causative)

Proto-Celtic:

Old Irish: luithir, fo·luathar

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *plāwáyati

Proto-Indo-Aryan: *plāwáyati

Sanskrit: प्लावयति (plāváyati)

Proto-Iranian: *frāwáyati

𐬟𐬭𐬀𐬟𐬭𐬁𐬎𐬎𐬀𐬌𐬌𐬁𐬵𐬌

Avestan: 𐬟𐬭𐬀𐬟𐬭𐬁𐬎𐬎𐬀𐬌𐬌𐬁𐬵𐬌 (frafrāuuaiiāhi)

Proto-Slavic: *plàviti (sometimes derived from *pleh₃(w)-) ⇒ *plàvati (see there for further descendants)

*pléw-mō (“lung”) (see there for further descendants)

*plow-mos

Proto-Germanic: *flaumaz (“stream”) (see there for further descendants)

*plow-ó-s

Proto-Hellenic: *plowos

Ancient Greek: πλόος (plóos)

Attic Greek: πλοῦς (ploûs)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *plawás

Proto-Indo-Aryan: *plawás

Sanskrit: प्लव (plavá)

Proto-Tocharian:

Tocharian B: plewe

*plow-tó-m

Proto-Balto-Slavic:

Latvian: plàuts (“shelf, sideboard of a bee-hive”)

Lithuanian: plaũtas (“sweating shelf, bath shelf, sideboard (of a bee-hive or a boat)”)

Proto-Slavic: *plūtò (“flotsam”)

Proto-Germanic:

Old Norse: fleyðr (“cross-beam”) (Old Icelandic)

Icelandic: fleyður

*plow-tós

Ancient Greek: πλοῦτος (ploûtos) (?)

*plów-yos (“ship”)

Proto-Germanic: *flawją (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Hellenic: *plóyyom

Ancient Greek: πλοῖον (ploîon)

Proto-Italic: *plowjos

Latin: pluvius

*plu-tó-s

desctree

Proto-Balto-Slavic: *plútas, *plúta n
East Baltic:
Latvian: pluts
Proto-Slavic: *plъ̀tъ (see there for further descendants)

⇒ Proto-Balto-Slavic: *plūtei

Proto-Hellenic: *plutós

Ancient Greek: πλυτός (plutós)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *plutás

Proto-Indo-Aryan: *plutás

Sanskrit: प्लुत (plutá)

Proto-Celtic: *ɸlowī

⇒ Breton: lewier m (“pilot”)

Old Cornish: leu (“rudder”)

Cornish: lew (“rudder”)

Old Irish: luí f (“rudder, tail”)

desc

Middle Welsh: llyw m (“rudder, tail, leader, pilot”)

Innovative formations:

(perhaps) Proto-Armenian:

Old Armenian: լուանամ (luanam)

Armenian: լվանալ (lvanal)

Proto-Hellenic: *pluňňō (< *plu-n-yéti)

Ancient Greek: πλῡ́νω (plū́nō)


plewk-

*pléwk-e-ti (thematic present)

Proto-Germanic: *fleuhaną (“to flee”) (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Germanic: *fleuganą (“to fly”) (reanalyzed) (see there for further descendants)

*plowk-yé-ti (o-grade yé-present)

Proto-Germanic: *flaugijaną (“to fly up”) (see there for further descendants)

Balto-Slavic:

Lithuanian: plaũkti (“to swim”)

*pluk-yé-ti (0-grade yé-present)

Balto-Slavic:

Lithuanian: plúkti (“to strike, to splash”)

→ Proto-Slavic: *plyčьkati (“to splash, to crawl in water”) (expressive, extended with *-kati)

>? Proto-Germanic: *plugijaną (“to plug”) (with unexpected "unshifted" *p)

*plewk-éh₂-ti (éh₂-present)

Proto-Germanic: *fleugōną (“to fly”)

*plewk-sḱ-éy-ti (sḱ-inchoative)

Balto-Slavic:

Proto-Slavic: *pľuščiti (“to flap, to press”)

*plewk-éh₂n ~ *pluk-éh₂n (Germ. ōn-stem)

Proto-Germanic: *fleugǭ / *flugǭ (“fly, flying insect”)

*plówk-os (o-stem nominal) (possibly)

Balto-Slavic:

Lithuanian: pláukas (“hair”)

Latvian: plaûki (“flakes, fibers”)

q

perhaps replacing an extinct reflex of <i class="Latn mention" lang="ine-pro">*plúsis</i> by folk etymology

Proto-Germanic: *flauhaz (“flea”) (perhaps replacing an extinct reflex of *plúsis by folk etymology) (see there for further descendants)

*pluk-lós (l-participle)

from earlier <i class="Latn mention" lang="gem-pro">*fluglaz</i> by dissimilation

Proto-Germanic: *fuglaz (“fowl”) (from earlier *fluglaz by dissimilation) (see there for further descendants)

*pluk-nós (n-participle)

Proto-Germanic: *flukkaz (“flock”) (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Balto-Slavic: *plúnksnāˀ

Latvian: plūksnas, plūksnes

Lithuanian: plùnksna, plū́ksna

Old Prussian: planxdine

Proto-Italic: *plow(k)smā

Latin: plūma (see there for further descendants)

*plúk-tis (i-stem t-participle)

Proto-Germanic: *fluhtiz (“flight”) (see there for further descendants)

Unsorted formations:

Proto-Germanic: *fliugika-

Proto-Germanic: *fluganą

Proto-Germanic: *flugilaz (see there for further descendants)

Extended form of *plew- (“to fly, flow, run”).


pnew-

*pnéw-e-ti (thematic root present)

Proto-Hellenic: *pnéwō

desc

Ancient Greek: πνέω (pnéō), πνείω (pneíō) — Poetic

*pnéw-se-ti ((h₁)se-desiderative)

Proto-Germanic: *fneusaną (see there for further descendants)

⇒ Proto-Germanic: *fnuzzōną

Middle High German: pfnurren

Icelandic: hnerra

>? Proto-Germanic: *hneusaną (see there for further descendants)

*pnḗw-s-t ~ *pnéw-s-n̥t (s-aorist)

Proto-Hellenic: *pnḗwhe

Ancient Greek: ἔπνευσε (épneuse)

*pnéw-mn̥

Unsorted formations:

Albanian:

>? Proto-Albanian: *pnewa

Albanian: *pnyj

Albanian: fryj (< earlier *fnyj)


kerp-

*kerp- (root verb)

Proto-Balto-Slavic: *kerp-, *kirp-

Latvian: cìrpt (“to shave”)

Lithuanian: kir̃pti (“to cut, chop”)

Proto-Slavic: *čerpti (“to scoop, draw”), *čerpati, *čьrpati

Italic:

Latin: carpō (“to pluck”)

*kerp-os

Proto-Balto-Slavic: *kerpas

Proto-Slavic: *čerpъ

Proto-Tocharian: *käurp-

Tocharian B: kurp- (“to be concerned with”)

Unsorted formations:

Proto-Albanian: *karpudā

Albanian: kërpudhë (“mushroom”)

Proto-Germanic: *harbistaz (“harvest, autumn”)

Hellenic:

Ancient Greek: καρπός (karpós, “fruit < *what is plucked”), κρώπιον (krṓpion, “sickle”)

Indo-Iranian:

Indo-Aryan:

Sanskrit: कृपाणी (kṛpāṇī, “dagger”), कृपाण (kṛpāṇa, “sword”)

Ultimately derived from *(s)ker- (“to cut”). A general word for “to harvest” that had a tendency in some branches to be specialized for the picking of fruit while in others for the reaping of grain.


neḱ-

*néḱ-t ~ *n̥ḱ-ént (aorist)

Proto-Indo-Iranian:

Proto-Indo-Aryan:

q

possibly from <i class="Latn mention" lang="ine-pro">*h₂neḱ-</i> (“to reach”) instead

Sanskrit: नशन्ति (náśanti, 3pl.aor.subj.) (possibly from *h₂neḱ- (“to reach”) instead)

desc

⇒ Sanskrit: अनशत् (ánaśat, thematicised aorist)

Proto-Tocharian: *näk-

Tocharian A: näk-

Tocharian B: näk-

*néḱ-s-t ~ *n̥ḱ-s-ént (innovative s-aorist)

Proto-Tocharian:

Tocharian A: ñakäs

Tocharian B: nekasta

q

or <i class="Latn mention" lang="ine-pro">*n̥ḱ-yé-ti</i>, with later restitution of full grade root

*néḱ-ye-ti (ye-present) (or *n̥ḱ-yé-ti, with later restitution of full grade root)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *náćyati (see there for further descendants)

*néḱ-se-ti (se-present)

Proto-Tocharian:

Tocharian A: nkäs

Tocharian B: nakṣtär

⇒ Proto-Tocharian:

Tocharian B: -nakṣi

*ne-nóḱ-e ~ *ne-nḱ-ḗr (perfect)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *nanā́ća

Proto-Indo-Aryan: *nanā́śa

Sanskrit: ननाश (nanā́śa)

Proto-Iranian: *nanā́ca

Avestan: 𐬬𐬍𐬥𐬇𐬥𐬁𐬯𐬁 (vīnə̄nāsā)

Proto-Tocharian:

Tocharian B: neku

*noḱ-éye-ti (causative)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *nāćáyati

Proto-Indo-Aryan: *nāśáyati

Sanskrit: नाशयति (nāśáyati)

Proto-Iranian: *nācáyati

desc

Old Persian: 𐎻𐎡𐎴𐎠𐎰𐎹𐎫𐎡𐎹 (vi-i-n-a-θ-y-t-i-y /vi-nāθayatiy/, 3sg.pres.ind.)

Proto-Italic: *nokeō

Latin: noceō (see there for further descendants)

⇒ Proto-Italic: [Term?] (s(e/o)-present)

Latin: noxit

⇒ Proto-Italic: *noksā

Latin: noxa

*nóḱ-o-s

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *nā́ćas

Proto-Indo-Aryan: *nā́śas

Sanskrit: नाश (nāśa) (see there for further descendants)

*neḱ-tó-s

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *naštás

Proto-Indo-Aryan: *naṣṭás

Sanskrit: नष्ट (naṣṭá) (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Iranian: *naštáh

Avestan: 𐬥𐬀𐬱𐬙𐬀 (našta)

*néḱ-s (“death”)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *náćš

Proto-Iranian: *náš

Avestan: 𐬥𐬀𐬯 (nas)

Proto-Italic: *neks

Latin: nex, necō (see there for further descendants)

*neḱ-rós

Proto-Hellenic: *nekrós

desctree

Ancient Greek: νεκρός (nekrós)
Greek: νεκρός (nekrós)

*néḱ-tu-s ~ *n̥ḱ-téw-s

Proto-Celtic: *anxtu (see there for further descendants)

*néḱ-us ~ *n̥ḱ-éw-s

*néḱ-tr̥h₂ (with root *terh₂-; though Beekes is unsure)

Proto-Hellenic:

Ancient Greek: νέκταρ (néktar) (see there for further descendants)

*n̥ḱw-ó-

Proto-Tocharian: *eṅkwe

Tocharian A: oṅk

Tocharian B: eṅkwe


*skelh₁-ye- (ye-present)

Hellenic:

Ancient Greek: σκέλλω (skéllō)

Hellenic:

Ancient Greek: σκελετός (skeletós)

Hellenic:

Ancient Greek: σκληρός (sklērós)

Proto-Germanic: *skalaz

English: shoal, shallow

German: schal

Unsorted formations:

German: hellig

>? Latvian: kalst


térmn̥

térmn̥ (nominative singular)
térmō (collective nominative)
térmn̥ (singular vocative)
térmō (collective vocative)
térmn̥ (accusative singular)
térmō (accusative collective)
tr̥méns (genitive singular)
trm̥nés (collective genitive)
tr̥méns (ablative singular)
trm̥nés (ablative collective)
tr̥méney (dative singular)
trm̥néy (collective dative)
tr̥mén (locative singular)
tr̥méni (locative singular)
tr̥mén (collective locative)
tr̥méni (collective locative)

q

< <i class="Latn mention" lang="ine-pro">*ter-m(n)-o-</i>

>? Proto-Armenian: (< *ter-m(n)-o-)

Armenian: թարմ (tʻarm, “end-piece”)

>? Proto-Germanic: *þrumą (“butt, end”) (perhaps earlier *þrumną < *trm̥n-ó-m) (see there for further descendants)

>? Proto-Germanic: *þrumǭ (< collective)

Proto-Hellenic: *térmə, *térmōn (< collective)

desc

Ancient Greek: τέρμα (térma), τέρμων (térmōn)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *tárma

Proto-Indo-Aryan: *tárma

Sanskrit: तर्मन् (tárman), सुतर्मन् (sutárman) (< *h₁su- + *térmn̥)

Proto-Italic: *termn̥, *termnos (see there for further descendants), *termō (< collective)

Latin: termen, terminus, termō

Pokorny suggests *ter(h₂)- (“to pass through”) + *-mn̥ (action or result suffix); Watkins suggests *ter- (“boundary”) + *-mn̥.


Unsorted formations:

Old Armenian: առիք (aṙikʻ) (possibly)

Armenian: առիք (aṙikʻ)

Old Armenian: արդն (ardn) (possibly)

Balto-Slavic:

Old Church Slavonic: ратище (ratište), ратовище (ratovište)

Proto-Germanic: *rōdō, *rōdǭ


Proto-Indo-Iranian: *rádati

Proto-Indo-Aryan: *rádati

Sanskrit: रदति (rádati)

Proto-Iranian: *rádati

desc

Middle Persian: [script needed] (randītan, “to scrape, smooth”)

Italic:

Latin: rōdō (see there for further descendants)

Italic:

Latin: rōstrum (see there for further descendants)

Unsorted formations:

>? Proto-Germanic: *rattaz, *rattō (see there for further descendants)


(s)kel-

*skél-ko-s

Proto-Germanic: *skelhaz

*skél-os ~ *skél-es-os

Proto-Hellenic: *skélos

⇒ τρισκελίς (triskelís)

Ancient Greek: σκέλος (skélos), ⇒ τρισκελίς (triskelís)

Proto-Italic: *skelos

Latin: scelus (see there for further descendants)

*skél-o-s

Proto-Indo-Iranian:

Proto-Iranian:

→⇒ Old Armenian: շար-աւանդ (šar-awand)

Mazanderani: اشکل (eškel, “thigh, thighbone”)

Persian: شل (šal, “thigh”)

⇒ *skelo-wer-o-

Proto-Indo-Iranian:

Proto-Iranian: *šarawāra-

Persian: شلوار (šalvâr) (see there for further descendants)

→ Arabic: سِرْوَال (sirwāl), سِرْبَال (sirbāl), شِرْوَال (širwāl) (dialectal), شَرْوَال (šarwāl) (modern), سِرْوَل (sirwal), سِرْوِيل (sirwīl) (see there for further descendants)

→ Biblical Aramaic: סַרְבָּלָא

→ Jewish Babylonian Aramaic: סַרְבָּלָא (sarbālā, “trousers; a type of outer garment”)

→ Ancient Greek: σαράβαρα (sarábara), σαράβαλλα (saráballa, “Scythian loose trousers”)

→ Latin: sarabala, sarabāra (“(Scythian) wide trousers”)

→ Classical Mandaic: ࡔࡀࡓࡅࡀࡋࡀ (šaruala, “trousers”)

→ Classical Syriac: ܫܪܒܠܐ (šarbālā, “trousers”), ܫܪܘܠܐ du (šarwālē, “leggings”)

*skol-ó-s

Proto-Albanian: *štšala

Albanian: çalë

*kōl-o-m

Proto-Hellenic:

Ancient Greek: κῶλον (kôlon) (see there for further descendants)

*kól-ō

Proto-Hellenic: *kólō

Ancient Greek: κόλων (kólōn)

Unsorted formations:

>? Proto-Albanian: *kall-

Albanian: shkal (“to tread, spur”)

Armenian:

>? Old Armenian: խուլ (xul, “deaf”)

Balto-Slavic:

>? Lithuanian: atsikalti

Hellenic:

Ancient Greek: κυλίνδω (kulíndō), κύλινδρος (kúlindros)

Ancient Greek: κυλλός (kullós, “deformed, crippled, crooked”) (possibly)

Ancient Greek: κῶλον (kôlon)

Ancient Greek: σκολιός (skoliós)

Ancient Greek: σκολίωσις (skolíōsis)

Ancient Greek: σκολίωμα (skolíōma)

Ancient Greek: σκώληξ (skṓlēx)

Italic: *skalik-

Latin: calix

Umbrian: skalçeta

(bent or curved body parts) leg, heel, knee, hip


*térh₂-e-ti (thematic root present)

Proto-Anatolian:

Hittite: 𒋻𒊏𒀜𒋫 (tar-ra-at-ta /tarratta/, 3sg.pres.med.)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *tárHati (see there for further descendants)

*térh₂-t ~ *tr̥h₂-ént (athematic root aorist)

*térh₂-u-ti ~ *tr̥h₂-w-enti (u-present)

*tḗrh₂-s-t ~ *térh₂-s-n̥t (s-aorist)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *HátārHst ~ *HátārHsat

Proto-Indo-Aryan: *HátārHst ~ *HátārHsat

Sanskrit: अतारीत् (átārīt, 3sg.act.), तारिषत् (tāriṣat, 3sg.subj.act.)

⇒ Sanskrit: ततार (tatā́ra)

⇒ Sanskrit: तारयति (tāráyati)

⇒ Sanskrit: तार (tāra)

*tí-terh₂-ti ~ *tí-tr̥h₂-n̥ti (i-reduplicated athematic root present)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *títarHti ~ *títr̥Hati (see there for further descendants)

*tí-tr̥h₂-s-eti (se-desiderative)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *títr̥Hsati

Proto-Indo-Aryan: *títr̥Hsati

Sanskrit: तितीर्षति (titīrṣati)

*torh₂-éye-ti (eye-causative)

Proto-Iranian: *tarHáyati

Old Persian: *tarayati

⇒ Old Persian: 𐎻𐎡𐎹𐎫𐎼/𐎹𐎶 (vi-i-y-t-r/y-m /viyatarayam/, 1sg.caus.inj.act.)

*tr̥h₂-é-ti ("tudati"-type thematic root present)

>? Proto-Albanian: *tra

⇒ Proto-Albanian: *tratja (+ *-atja)

Albanian: tras (“to pull”)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *tr̥Háti

Proto-Indo-Aryan: *tr̥Háti

Sanskrit: तिरति (tiráti, “to bring through”) (or dissimilated from *titiráti)

⇒ Sanskrit: तिर (tira)

⇒ Sanskrit: तितिरुर् (titirúr)

>? Proto-Italic: *trō

Latin: *trō

⇒ Latin: intrō (“to enter, go into, penetrate”) (see there for further descendants)

*tr̥h₂-yé-ti (zero-grade ye-present)

>? Proto-Celtic: *taryati

Proto-Brythonic: *tarðad (“to explode”) (see there for further descendants)

*tr̥-né-h₂-ti ~ *tr-n̥-h₂-énti (nasal infix)

Proto-Anatolian:

Hittite: 𒋻𒈾𒄿 (tar-na-i /tarnai/)

>? *néḱ-t(e)rh₂-s ~ *neḱ-tr̥h₂-és (+ *neḱ- (“to perish”))

Proto-Hellenic: *néktər

Ancient Greek: νέκταρ (néktar)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *tárHiH

Proto-Indo-Aryan: *tárHiH

Sanskrit: तरी (tarī, “boat”)

*térh₂-mn̥ ~ *tr̥h₂-mén-s

Proto-Hellenic: *térəmə

Ancient Greek: *τέραμα (*térama)

⇒ Ancient Greek: ἀτέραμνος (atéramnos, “hard, stubborn, merciless”)

*térh₂-tu-s ~ *tr̥h₂-téw-s

Proto-Celtic: *trātu (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *tárHtuš

Proto-Indo-Aryan: *tárHtuṣ

Sanskrit: *tárītu

⇒ Sanskrit: दुष्तरीतु (duṣtárītu, “difficult to be passed or overcome”) (+ दुस्- (dus-, “difficult”))

*tr̥h₂-kʷe or *tr̥h₂-h₃kʷ-

Proto-Germanic: *þurhw (“through”) (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *tr̥Hnás

Proto-Indo-Aryan: *tr̥Hnás

Sanskrit: तीर्ण (tīrṇá)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *tr̥Htʰám

Proto-Indo-Aryan: *tr̥Htʰám

Sanskrit: तीर्थ (tīrthá) (see there for further descendants)

Brill Publishers
Helmut Rix
Lexikon der indogermanischen Verben
Mate Kapović


Proto-Albanian: *kla(u)tja

Albanian: qos

Proto-Balto-Slavic:

Lithuanian: kliūdýti

>? Proto-Germanic: *sleutaną (< *(s)klewh₂-de-ti) (see there for further descendants)

desctree

Proto-Italic: *klaudō
Latin: claudō (see there for further descendants)
Paelignian: clusu (participle perfect)

⇒ Proto-Italic: *klaudtrom

Latin: claustrum (see there for further descendants)

*kléh₂u-ti ~ *kluh₂-énti (root present)

Proto-Balto-Slavic:

Latvian: kļũt

Lithuanian: kliū́ti, kliáuti

Proto-Slavic: *kľuti

⇒ Proto-Slavic: *kľùka (+ *-ka) (see there for further descendants)

⇒ Proto-Slavic: *kľučь (+ *-čь) (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Hellenic: *klāyyō

Ancient Greek: κληΐω (klēḯō)

*kléh₂w-ih₂ ~ *kl̥h₂u-yéh₂s

Proto-Hellenic: *klāwī́

⇒ Proto-Hellenic: *klāwī́ds

Ancient Greek: κληΐς (klēḯs)

⇒ Proto-Hellenic: *klāwī́ks

Doric: κλᾴξ (klā́ix)

⇒ Proto-Hellenic: *klāwitʰron

Ancient Greek: κλήϊθρον (klḗïthron)

Proto-Hellenic:

desc

Mycenaean Greek: 𐀏𐀨𐀹𐀡𐀫 (ka-ra-wi-po-ro /klāwi-pʰoros/)

desctree

Proto-Italic: *klāwis (“bar, bolt”)
Latin: clāvis (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Celtic: *klāwos (possibly borrowed from Latin instead) (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Italic: *klāwos

Latin: clāvus (“nail, peg”) (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Hellenic: *klōyyos

Ancient Greek: κλῳός (klōiós)


gʷelH-

*gʷelH-éti (root present)

Armenian:

desc

Old Armenian: կեղ (keł, “wound, sore, ulcer”), կեղեմ (kełem, “to torment, torture, afflict”), (possibly) կեղերջ (kełerǰ, “complaint, grievance, pain”)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *gráHti

Proto-Iranian: *gráHti

Avestan: 𐬥𐬌-𐬖𐬭𐬁𐬌𐬭𐬈 (ni-γrāⁱre, “to throw down”)

Pashto: غوزارول (γwəzārawə́l, “throw, cause to fall, knock over”)

Persian: گرزین (gerzin, “arrow”)

Balto-Slavic:

Latvian: dzel̂t (“to sting”)

Lithuanian: gélti (“to hurt severely”)

Proto-Germanic: *kwelaną (see there for further descendants)

*gʷl̥-né-h₁-ti ~ *gʷl̥-n-h₁-énti (nasal infix present)

Proto-Celtic: *balnīti (“to die”) (see there for further descendants)

*gʷelHtlom or *gʷelHdʰlom

Balto-Slavic:

Proto-Slavic: *žędlo (< *geldlo) (Vasmer) (see there for further descendants)

*gʷélH-os

Hellenic:

Ancient Greek: βέλος (bélos, “missile”)

Hellenic:

Ancient Greek: βελόνη (belónē)

*gʷélH-m̥n-o-

Hellenic:

Ancient Greek: βέλεμνον (bélemnon)

Proto-Italic: *gʷelājō or Proto-Italic: *gʷelāō

Latin: volō (“to fly”) (possibly)

*gʷl̥H-id-yé-

Hellenic:

Ancient Greek: βαλλίζω (ballízō)

*gʷl̥H-mn̥

Hellenic:

Ancient Greek: βλῆμα (blêma)

*gʷl̥H-tós

Hellenic:

Ancient Greek: βλητός (blētós)

*gʷl̥H-trom

Hellenic:

Ancient Greek: βλῆτρον (blêtron)

*gʷolH-éye- (causative)

Proto-Germanic: *kwaljaną (see there for further descendants)

Hellenic:

Ancient Greek: βολέω (boléō)

*gʷolH-mos

Proto-West Germanic: *kwalm (see there for further descendants)

*gʷόlH-os

possibly Proto-Balto-Slavic: *galas

Latvian: gals (“tip, end; death”)

Lithuanian: gãlas (“tip, end; death”)

Old Prussian: gallan (acc.), golis (“death”)

Hellenic:

Ancient Greek: βόλος (bólos)

Unsorted formations:

Balto-Slavic:

Lithuanian: gėlà (“acute pain”)

Slavic:

Old East Slavic: жель (želĭ)

→ Latvian: žēl

→ Russian: жаль (žalʹ)

Hellenic:

Ancient Greek: βάλλω (bállō), βολή (bolḗ), βολίς (bolís)

Indo-Iranian:

Indo-Aryan:

Sanskrit: उद्गूर्ण (udgūrṇa)

to throw, reach, pierce; to hit by throwing