en

desctree

Proto-Brythonic: *ɨn
Middle Breton: en
Breton: e
Cornish: yn, en
Old Welsh: in
Middle Welsh: yn
Welsh: yn

Old Irish: i, hí, hi
Irish: i
Scottish Gaelic: an
Manx: ayns

From Proto-Indo-European *h₁én. Matasović reconstructs *eni for the whole preposition, but since the preposition triggers a nasal mutation/eclipsis instead of a lenition in its descendants, a closed syllable may be reconstructed instead. However, the attested closed syllable could be explained by the theory of the early apocope of final /i/ in unstressed words, usually used to explain the rise of the absolute and conjunct inflection in Old Irish (by treating conjunct forms in the unstressed category).


so

Old Irish: so, sa, se, sea, seo, siu
Irish: seo
Scottish Gaelic: seo
Manx: shoh

Gaulish: so


me

Proto-Brythonic:

Middle Welsh: -m-

desc

ousting <i class="Latn mention" lang="cel-pro">*mī</i> for the nominative

Old Irish: m-, -um (object pronouns), mé (ousting *mī for the nominative)

Irish: mé

Scottish Gaelic: mi

Manx: mee

From Proto-Indo-European *h₁me, accusative singular of *éǵh₂.


genus

genus (nominative singular)
genū (dual nominative)
genowes (nominative plural)
genu (singular vocative)
genū (dual vocative)
genūs (plural vocative)
genum (accusative singular)
genū (accusative dual)
genums (accusative plural)
genous (genitive singular)
genous (dual genitive)
genowom (genitive plural)
genou (dative singular)
genubom (dative dual)
genubos (dative plural)
genū (instrumental singular)
genubim (dual instrumental)
genubis (instrumental plural)

desctree

Brythonic: *gen
Old Breton: gen
Middle Breton: guen
Breton: gen
Old Cornish: genau
Cornish: gen
Middle Welsh: gen
Welsh: gên

Old Irish: gin (“mouth”)

Gaulish: gena (“cheek”)


ne

Celtiberian: ne

desc

Old Irish: na, ná (with vowel lengthened)

Irish: ná

*nīs(t) (“is not”) (from *ne esti; in Insular Celtic coming to mean simply ‘not’)

Proto-Brythonic: *niOld Breton: neMiddle Breton: neBreton: neCornish: nyOld Welsh: niMiddle Welsh: ny


es

head

*es (feminine *sī, neuter *ed, plural *eyes)

desctree

Old Irish: é, hé, hǽ
Irish: sé, Irish: é
Scottish Gaelic: e
Manx: eh

Proto-Brythonic: *eβ̃

Breton: eñv

Cornish: ev

Old Welsh: em

Middle Welsh: ef, hi, wy

Welsh: ef (literary); e, fe (colloquial)


tu

Proto-Brythonic:

Middle Welsh: -th-

Old Irish: t-


tod

Proto-Brythonic: *to

Middle Welsh: do

Welsh: do

Old Irish: tó

From Proto-Indo-European *tód, a demonstrative repurposed as an affirmative particle.


ambi-

Proto-Brythonic: *amm-
Breton: am-
Cornish: am-
Welsh: am-

Old Irish: imm-, imb-; imme- (in relative verb forms)
Irish: im-

Gaulish: Ambiorix (personal name)


an-

Proto-Brythonic: *an-
Breton: an-
Middle Welsh: an-
Welsh: an-, af-

Old Irish: an-, am-, é-, in-
Irish: an-
Scottish Gaelic: an-


bonus

bonus (nominative singular)
bonū (dual nominative)
bonowes (nominative plural)
bonu (singular vocative)
bonū (dual vocative)
bonūs (plural vocative)
bonum (accusative singular)
bonū (accusative dual)
bonums (accusative plural)
bonous (genitive singular)
bonous (dual genitive)
bonowom (genitive plural)
bonou (dative singular)
bonubom (dative dual)
bonubos (dative plural)
bonū (instrumental singular)
bonubim (dual instrumental)
bonubis (instrumental plural)

Proto-Brythonic: *bon

Middle Welsh: bon

Welsh: bôn

Cornish: ben

Gaulish: *bona

⇒ Gaulish: *Windobona

→ Latin: Vindobona

Old Irish: bun (see there for further descendants)

From Proto-Indo-European *bʰuH- (“to be, become”).


mori

mori (nominative singular)
morī (dual nominative)
moryā (nominative plural)
mori (singular vocative)
morī (dual vocative)
moryā (plural vocative)
mori (accusative singular)
morī (accusative dual)
moryā (accusative plural)
morois (genitive singular)
morois (dual genitive)
moryom (genitive plural)
morei (dative singular)
moribom (dative dual)
moribos (dative plural)
morei (locative singular)
morī (instrumental singular)
moribim (dual instrumental)
moribis (instrumental plural)

desctree

Proto-Brythonic: *mor (transferred to o-stems)
Old Breton: mor
Middle Breton: mor
Breton: mor
Old Cornish: mor
Middle Cornish: mor
Cornish: mor
Middle Welsh: mor
Welsh: môr

Old Irish: muir

Irish: muir

Manx: mooir

Scottish Gaelic: muir

⇒ Gaulish: Aremorica (the name for Brittany)

→⇒ Vulgar Latin: *morūca


meli

meli (nominative singular)
melī (dual nominative)
melyā (nominative plural)
meli (singular vocative)
melī (dual vocative)
melyā (plural vocative)
meli (accusative singular)
melī (accusative dual)
melyā (accusative plural)
melois (genitive singular)
melois (dual genitive)
melyom (genitive plural)
melei (dative singular)
melibom (dative dual)
melibos (dative plural)
melei (locative singular)
melī (instrumental singular)
melibim (dual instrumental)
melibis (instrumental plural)

Proto-Brythonic: *mel

Breton: mel

Cornish: mel

Welsh: mêl

Old Irish: mil
Middle Irish: mil
Irish: mil
Scottish Gaelic: mil
Manx: mill

From Proto-Indo-European *mélid (“honey”).


wai

Middle Breton: goa

Breton: gwa

Old Irish: fae

Welsh: gwae

Cornish: go, gew

From Proto-Indo-European *wáy. Compare Latin vae, Lithuanian vaĩ, vái, Proto-Germanic *wai, Russian увы́ (uvý, “alas”), Avestan 𐬬𐬀𐬫𐬋𐬌 (vayōi), Sanskrit उवे (uvé), Persian وای (vây).


enter

Proto-Brythonic: *ɨntr
Old Breton: entr-
Middle Breton: entre, intre
Breton: etre
Middle Cornish: yntre, ynter
Cornish: yntra, ynter
Old Welsh: ithr

Old Irish: etar-, eter
Irish: idir
Manx: eddyr
Scottish Gaelic: eadar

Gaulish: entar-

Celtiberian: entara

From Proto-Indo-European *h₁entér. Cognate with Latin inter, Proto-Germanic *under, Sanskrit अन्तर् (antar) and Albanian ndër.


yo

Celtiberian: ios

Gaulish: -ío

n-g

Old Irish: transphonologized as relative forms of verbs and leniting relative clauses

Traditionally regarded as the stem form of Proto-Indo-European *yós.


gustus

gustus (nominative singular)
gustū (dual nominative)
gustowes (nominative plural)
gustu (singular vocative)
gustū (dual vocative)
gustūs (plural vocative)
gustum (accusative singular)
gustū (accusative dual)
gustums (accusative plural)
gustous (genitive singular)
gustous (dual genitive)
gustowom (genitive plural)
gustou (dative singular)
gustubom (dative dual)
gustubos (dative plural)
gustū (instrumental singular)
gustubim (dual instrumental)
gustubis (instrumental plural)

Old Irish: gus (“force”)

Middle Irish: gus (“force”)

Irish: gus

Gaulish: gussou (dat. sg.)

From Proto-Indo-European *ǵéwstus (“taste”).


essi

edmi (active first-person present singular)
ītsū (active first-person future singular)
āda (active first-person preterite singular)
etsi (active present second-person singular)
ītsesi (active future second-person singular)
ādas? (active preterite second-person singular)
essi (active present singular third-person)
ītseti (active future singular third-person)
āde (active preterite singular third-person)
edmosi (active first-person plural present)
ītsomosi (active first-person future plural)
ādmo (active first-person plural preterite)
essesi (active plural present second-person)
ītsetesi (active future plural second-person)
āsse (active plural preterite second-person)
denti (active plural present third-person)
edenti (active plural present third-person)
ītsonti (active future plural third-person)
ādars (active plural preterite third-person)
etsū (active first-person present singular subjunctive)
etsesi (active present second-person singular subjunctive)
etseti (active present singular subjunctive third-person)
etsomosi (active first-person plural present subjunctive)
etsetesi (active plural present second-person subjunctive)
etsonti (active plural present subjunctive third-person)
ītsūr (first-person future passive singular)
ītsetar (future passive second-person singular)
ītsetor (future passive singular third-person)
ītsommor (first-person future passive plural)
ītsedwe (future passive plural second-person)
ītsontor (future passive plural third-person)
etsūr (first-person passive present singular subjunctive)
etsetar (passive present second-person singular subjunctive)
etsetor (passive present singular subjunctive third-person)
etsommor (first-person passive plural present subjunctive)
etsedwe (passive plural present second-person subjunctive)
etsontor (passive plural present subjunctive third-person)
essos (nominative singular)
essou (dual nominative)
essoi (nominative plural)
esse (singular vocative)
essou (dual vocative)
essoi (plural vocative)
essom (accusative singular)
essou (accusative dual)
essoms (accusative plural)
essī (genitive singular)
essous (dual genitive)
essom (genitive plural)
essūi (dative singular)
essobom (dative dual)
essobos (dative plural)
essū (instrumental singular)
essobim (dual instrumental)
essobis (instrumental plural)
essā (nominative singular)
essai (dual nominative)
essās (nominative plural)
essā (singular vocative)
essai (dual vocative)
essās (plural vocative)
essam (accusative singular)
essai (accusative dual)
essams (accusative plural)
essās (genitive singular)
essai (dative singular)
essābom (dative dual)
essābos (dative plural)
essābim (dual instrumental)
essābis (instrumental plural)
essom (nominative singular)
essā (nominative plural)
essom (singular vocative)
essā (plural vocative)
essā (accusative plural)

Proto-Brythonic:

Old Breton: esat

Welsh: ysu

Old Irish: ithid

Irish: ith

Manx: ee

Scottish Gaelic: ith

Virtually everyone agrees that this verb came from Proto-Indo-European *h₁ed- (“to eat”). However, the present stem of this verb is one of the most controversial to reconstruct in Proto-Celtic, only matched in controversy with the preterite of *ɸarnati. There are two major theories on how the Goidelic present stem ith- came to be, all of them attributing it to an analogical reformation based on the root *ɸit- that is present in the verbal noun *ɸityā in addition to *ɸitu (“corn, grain”). The steps leading to the suppletion remain up for debate.
* McCone and the KPV reconstruct an original athematic Narten present, leading to Celtic *īd- in the singular and *ed- in the plural. They then have the ablaut reshaped to respectively *īd- and *id- and then harmonized to *id- for both singular and plural. Then, after the loss of initial ɸ in Insular Celtic, stem id- was replaced with it- and thematised.
* Lindeman and Sandell, finding no other secure Indo-European evidence of a Narten present formation for this verb, independently prefer a simple direct derivation from the e/zero-grade athematic Proto-Indo-European *h₁édti, which would lead to an extremely anomalous Proto-Celtic paradigm *edmi, *essi, *essi, etc. which was ripe for replacement by a simpler suppletive formation. After a further thematicisation to *esseti, Lindeman and Sandell posit different motivations for the later suppletion.
** Lindeman thought that the suppletion was caused by the newly thematic present being identical with its own subjunctive, with a new present stem that was very distinct from the subjunctive stem being desired.
** Sandell instead draws on the verbal noun *ɸityā itself as the trigger for analogy. He notes that many Old Irish verbal nouns in -e (from Proto-Celtic *-yā) correspond to B I (and some B II) verbs with transparent relationships between the present stem and the verbal noun. The lack of transparency between the original present stem and the verbal noun ithe in Old Irish led to remodeling with a present stem ith- to match.
* Matasović attempts to substitute KPV and McCone's Narten present with an i-reduplicated *ɸibeti-style present. Sandell dismisses Matasović's derivation for lacking a subsequent mechanism to reach a short i- stage from the resulting *īdeti.
** Matasović's derivation can be salvaged by assuming that *ɸibeti itself intervened to force a short i. Influence of *ɸibeti is not unparalleled, as KPV attributes ithid's a-future to analogy with ibid, which descends from *ɸibeti and also has an a-future (although ibid also acquired its a-future secondarily).


-os

-os (masculine nominative singular stem)
-ou (dual masculine nominative stem)
-oi (masculine nominative plural stem)
-e (masculine singular stem vocative)
-ou (dual masculine stem vocative)
-ūs (masculine plural stem vocative)
-om (accusative masculine singular stem)
-ou (accusative dual masculine stem)
-oms (accusative masculine plural stem)
-ī (genitive masculine singular stem)
-ous (dual genitive masculine stem)
-om (genitive masculine plural stem)
-ūi (dative masculine singular stem)
-obom (dative dual masculine stem)
-obos (dative masculine plural stem)
-ei (locative masculine singular stem)
-ū (instrumental masculine singular stem)
-obim (dual instrumental masculine stem)
-ūis (instrumental masculine plural stem)

From Proto-Indo-European *(ó)-os, which formed tómos-type event nouns from verbal roots.

rād-ī- + *-os → *rādos (“speech”)

uɸo- (“under-”) + *log-ī- (“to lay”) + *-os → *uɸologos (“hiding”)

Forms verbal nouns corresponding to o-grade causative/iterative verbs.


satis

satis (nominative singular)
satī (dual nominative)
satīs (nominative plural)
sati (singular vocative)
satī (dual vocative)
satīs (plural vocative)
satim (accusative singular)
satī (accusative dual)
satims (accusative plural)
sateis (genitive singular)
satyow (dual genitive)
satyom (genitive plural)
satei (dative singular)
satibom (dative dual)
satibos (dative plural)
satei (locative singular)
satī (instrumental singular)
satibim (dual instrumental)
satibis (instrumental plural)

Proto-Brythonic:

Middle Breton: het

Breton: hed

Cornish: hês

Middle Welsh: heyd

Welsh: haid

Old Irish: saithe (<*satyos)

From Proto-Indo-European *seh₁- (“to impress, insert, sow, plant”). Another possibility would be Proto-Indo-European *seh₂- (“to satiate, satisfy”) with the meaning of "swarm" derived from a metaphor of "statiety of bees".


tantus

tantus (nominative singular)
tantū (dual nominative)
tantowes (nominative plural)
tantu (singular vocative)
tantū (dual vocative)
tantūs (plural vocative)
tantum (accusative singular)
tantū (accusative dual)
tantums (accusative plural)
tantous (genitive singular)
tantous (dual genitive)
tantowom (genitive plural)
tantou (dative singular)
tantubom (dative dual)
tantubos (dative plural)
tantū (instrumental singular)
tantubim (dual instrumental)
tantubis (instrumental plural)

Proto-Brythonic: *tant

Old Breton: tanntou pl

Breton: tant (“cord”)

Old Welsh: tantou pl

Middle Welsh: tant

Welsh: tant

desctree

Old Irish: tét (“cord, string”)
Middle Irish: tét f
Irish: téad
Manx: tead
Scottish Gaelic: teud

From Proto-Indo-European *tén-tu-s ~ *tn̥-téw-s, from *ten- (“to stretch”). Contains *-tus.


esti

esmi (active first-person present singular)
esēmam (active first-person imperfect singular)
esi (active present second-person singular)
esētās (active imperfect second-person singular)
esti (active present singular third-person)
esēto (active imperfect singular third-person)
esmosi (active first-person plural present)
esēmo (active first-person imperfect plural)
estesi (active plural present second-person)
esēstē (active imperfect plural second-person)
senti (active plural present third-person)
esēnto (active imperfect plural third-person)
esū (active first-person present singular subjunctive)
esesi (active present second-person singular subjunctive)
es (active imperative second-person singular)
eseti (active present singular subjunctive third-person)
estou (active imperative singular third-person)
esomosi (active first-person plural present subjunctive)
smos (active first-person imperative plural)
esetesi (active plural present second-person subjunctive)
ste (active imperative plural second-person)
esonti (active plural present subjunctive third-person)
sentou (active imperative plural third-person)

Gaulish: immi

Old Irish: is

Irish: is

Scottish Gaelic: is

Old Welsh: is (3sg), (h)int (3pl.)


medu

medu (nominative singular)
medū (dual nominative)
medwā (nominative plural)
medu (singular vocative)
medū (dual vocative)
medwā (plural vocative)
medu (accusative singular)
medū (accusative dual)
medwā (accusative plural)
medous (genitive singular)
medous (dual genitive)
medowom (genitive plural)
medou (dative singular)
medubom (dative dual)
medubos (dative plural)
medū (instrumental singular)
medubim (dual instrumental)
medubis (instrumental plural)

desctree

Proto-Brythonic: *með
Middle Breton: mez
Breton: mez
Cornish: medh
Middle Welsh: medd
Welsh: medd

Primitive Irish: *ᚋᚓᚇᚒ (*medu)
Old Irish: mid
Middle Irish: mid
Irish: meá
Scottish Gaelic: meadh

Gaulish: medu


eyes

head

*eyes pl (accusative *ens, genitive *ēsom, dative *ēbis)

ens (accusative)
ēsom (genitive)
ēbis (dative)

Proto-Brythonic:

Breton: i

Middle Cornish: y, i

Cornish: i

Middle Welsh: wy

Welsh: hwy, nhw

Old Irish: é (“they”)

Middle Irish: íat

Irish: iad

Scottish Gaelic: iad

Manx: ad

From Proto-Indo-European éyes, plural of *ís.


tū

*tū (accusative *tu, genitive *towe, plural *swīs)

tu (accusative)
towe (genitive)
swīs (plural)

Brythonic: *ti
Breton: te
Cornish: ty
Welsh: ti

Old Irish: tú

Irish: tú

Manx: oo

Scottish Gaelic: thu

Gaulish: tu


-om

-om (nominative singular)
-ou (dual nominative)
-ā (nominative plural)
-om (singular vocative)
-ou (dual vocative)
-ā (plural vocative)
-om (accusative singular)
-ou (accusative dual)
-ā (accusative plural)
-ī (genitive singular)
-ous (dual genitive)
-om (genitive plural)
-ūi (dative singular)
-obom (dative dual)
-obos (dative plural)
-ei (locative singular)
-ū (instrumental singular)
-obim (dual instrumental)
-ūis (instrumental plural)

dīwed- + *-om → *dīwedom (“end”) (cf. *dīwedeti (“to stop”))

uɸobey- + *-om → *uɸobeiyom (“blow, injury”) (cf. *binati (“to strike, beat”), a zero-grade formation)

Forms action nouns from e-grade (and sometimes zero-grade) roots corresponding to prefixed verbs.


kanta

Proto-Brythonic:

Old Breton: cant

Breton: gant

Old Cornish: cant

Cornish: gans

Middle Welsh: cant

Welsh: gan

Old Irish: cét- (rare)

From Proto-Indo-European *ḱm̥-ti-, from *ḱóm (“with”). See also *kom- (“with”). Closely related to *kantyos (“gathering”).


natus

natus (nominative singular)
natū (dual nominative)
natowes (nominative plural)
natu (singular vocative)
natū (dual vocative)
natūs (plural vocative)
natum (accusative singular)
natū (accusative dual)
natums (accusative plural)
natous (genitive singular)
natous (dual genitive)
natowom (genitive plural)
natou (dative singular)
natubom (dative dual)
natubos (dative plural)
natū (instrumental singular)
natubim (dual instrumental)
natubis (instrumental plural)

Old Irish: nath

Irish: nath

Brythonic:

Middle Welsh: nat

Welsh: nâd

Possibly related to the Proto-Indo-European root *(s)neh₁- (“to spin (thread)”).


beru

beru (nominative singular)
berū (dual nominative)
berwā (nominative plural)
beru (singular vocative)
berū (dual vocative)
berwā (plural vocative)
beru (accusative singular)
berū (accusative dual)
berwā (accusative plural)
berous (genitive singular)
berous (dual genitive)
berowom (genitive plural)
berou (dative singular)
berubom (dative dual)
berubos (dative plural)
berū (instrumental singular)
berubim (dual instrumental)
berubis (instrumental plural)

desctree

Brythonic: *ber
Middle Breton: ber
Breton: ber
Old Cornish: ber
Cornish: ber
Middle Welsh: ber
Welsh: bêr

Old Irish: bir, biur (“spear, spit”)

Irish: bior

Scottish Gaelic: bior

Manx: byr, birr

From Proto-Indo-European *gʷéru (“spit, spear”).


to-

Brythonic:

Old Breton: to-

Middle Breton: do-, de-

Cornish: de-

Old Welsh: di-

Middle Welsh: dy-

Welsh: dy-

Old Irish: to-, do-, do-

Middle Irish: do-

Unknown. Dunkel gives two suggestions, either Proto-Indo-European *tó (“to, towards”), but there are no clear cognates, or PIE *tó (“then”), compare Hittite 𒋫 (ta-, “then”, connective particle). Matasović's derivation from PIE *tó- (pronoun) is plausible neither semantically nor morphologically, because the stem *tó- was otherwise completely replaced by *só- in Celtic.

m+

Lexikon der indogermanischen Partikeln und Pronominalstämme


limos

lemos (masculine nominative singular stem)
lemou (dual masculine nominative stem)
lemoi (masculine nominative plural stem)
leme (masculine singular stem vocative)
lemou (dual masculine stem vocative)
lemūs (masculine plural stem vocative)
lemom (accusative masculine singular stem)
lemou (accusative dual masculine stem)
lemoms (accusative masculine plural stem)
lemī (genitive masculine singular stem)
lemous (dual genitive masculine stem)
lemom (genitive masculine plural stem)
lemūi (dative masculine singular stem)
lemobom (dative dual masculine stem)
lemobos (dative masculine plural stem)
lemei (locative masculine singular stem)
lemū (instrumental masculine singular stem)
lemobim (dual instrumental masculine stem)
lemūis (instrumental masculine plural stem)

Proto-Brythonic: *lluɨβ̃ (from *lēmos)

Middle Welsh: llwyfen

Welsh: llwyf

Old Irish: lem

Middle Irish: lem
Irish: leamh


talu

talu (nominative singular)
talū (dual nominative)
talwā (nominative plural)
talu (singular vocative)
talū (dual vocative)
talwā (plural vocative)
talu (accusative singular)
talū (accusative dual)
talwā (accusative plural)
talous (genitive singular)
talous (dual genitive)
talowom (genitive plural)
talou (dative singular)
talubom (dative dual)
talubos (dative plural)
talū (instrumental singular)
talubim (dual instrumental)
talubis (instrumental plural)

Proto-Brythonic: *tal

Middle Breton: talar

Middle Breton: tal

Breton: tal

Old Cornish: tal

Cornish: tal, taal

Old Welsh: tal

Middle Welsh: tal

Welsh: tâl

desc

Old Irish: taul (“shield boss”), tul, tel

Gaulish: *talu

⇒ Gaulish: *Argiotalus (personal name)

Celtiberian: talukokum (gen.pl.) (familiy name)

Unknown. Maybe from Proto-Indo-European *téHl-u ~ *tHl-éw-s, cognate with Sanskrit तालु (tā́lu, “palate”). Or related to *talamū (“earth”).


sī

Proto-Brythonic: *hi

Breton: hi

Welsh: hi

Old Irish: sí

Irish: sí


samos

samos (masculine nominative singular stem)
samou (dual masculine nominative stem)
samoi (masculine nominative plural stem)
same (masculine singular stem vocative)
samou (dual masculine stem vocative)
samūs (masculine plural stem vocative)
samom (accusative masculine singular stem)
samou (accusative dual masculine stem)
samoms (accusative masculine plural stem)
samī (genitive masculine singular stem)
samous (dual genitive masculine stem)
samom (genitive masculine plural stem)
samūi (dative masculine singular stem)
samobom (dative dual masculine stem)
samobos (dative masculine plural stem)
samei (locative masculine singular stem)
samū (instrumental masculine singular stem)
samobim (dual instrumental masculine stem)
samūis (instrumental masculine plural stem)

desctree

Brythonic: *haβ̃
Old Breton: ham
Middle Breton: haff
Breton: hañv
Old Cornish: haf
Cornish: hav
Old Welsh: ham
Middle Welsh: haf
Welsh: haf

Old Irish: sam

Gaulish: samo-

From Proto-Indo-European *sm̥h₂-ó-s, from *semh₂- (“warm season, summer”). Cognate with Proto-Germanic *sumaraz, Armenian ամառ (amaṙ, “summer”), Khotanese [script needed] (hamana-, “summer”), Sanskrit समा (sámā, “season, year”), Tocharian A ṣme.


dū

desctree

Proto-Brythonic: *di
Breton: da
Cornish: dhe
Old Welsh: di
Middle Welsh: y (“to, for”)
Welsh: i (“to, for”)

Old Irish: do

Irish: do

Scottish Gaelic: do


mī

head

*mī (accusative *me, genitive *mene, plural *snīs)

me (accusative)
mene (genitive)
snīs (plural)

desctree

Proto-Brythonic: *mi
Breton: me
Cornish: my
Welsh: mi, fi, i

Old Irish: mé
Irish: mé
Manx: mee
Scottish Gaelic: mi

Gaulish: mi

From Proto-Indo-European *me (“me”), the accusative case of the personal pronoun *éǵh₂.


kū

kū (nominative singular)
kune (dual nominative)
kunes (nominative plural)
kū (singular vocative)
kune (dual vocative)
kunes (plural vocative)
kunam (accusative singular)
kune (accusative dual)
kunams (accusative plural)
kunos (genitive singular)
kunou (dual genitive)
kunom (genitive plural)
kunei (dative singular)
kunobom (dative dual)
kunobos (dative plural)
kuni (locative singular)
kune? (instrumental singular)
kunobim (dual instrumental)
kunobis (instrumental plural)

Proto-Brythonic: *ki
Middle Breton: ci, qui
Breton: ki
Old Cornish: ci
Cornish: ki, kei
Middle Welsh: ci, ki
Welsh: ci

Primitive Irish: ᚉᚒᚅᚐ (cuna, gen.sg.)
Old Irish: cú
Middle Irish: cú
Irish: cú
Manx: coo
Scottish Gaelic: cù


mā

Brythonic:

Old Breton: ma

Middle Breton: ma, mar

Breton: mar

Cornish: mar

Old Irish: má
Irish: má
Manx: my
Scottish Gaelic: ma

Matasović compares Ancient Greek μήν (mḗn, “surely, truly”).


-man

-man (nominative singular)
-mane? (dual nominative)
-mana (nominative plural)
-man (singular vocative)
-mane? (dual vocative)
-mana (plural vocative)
-man (accusative singular)
-mane? (accusative dual)
-mana (accusative plural)
-mens (genitive singular)
-menous? (dual genitive)
-menom (genitive plural)
-menē (dative singular)
-membom (dative dual)
-membos (dative plural)
-men (locative singular)
-meni (locative singular)
-menē (instrumental singular)
-membim (dual instrumental)
-membis (instrumental plural)

From Proto-Indo-European *-mn̥. Cognate with Latin -men, Ancient Greek -μα (-ma), Sanskrit -मन् (-man).

Creates action nouns or result nouns from verbs


segos

segos (neuter nominative singular)
segese? (dual neuter nominative)
segesa (neuter nominative plural)
segos (neuter singular vocative)
segese? (dual neuter vocative)
segesa (neuter plural vocative)
segos (accusative neuter singular)
segese? (accusative dual neuter)
segesa (accusative neuter plural)
segesos (genitive neuter singular)
segesous? (dual genitive neuter)
segesom (genitive neuter plural)
segesē (dative neuter singular)
segesbom (dative dual neuter)
segesbos (dative neuter plural)
segesi (locative neuter singular)
segesē (instrumental neuter singular)
segesbim (dual instrumental neuter)
segesbis (instrumental neuter plural)

Proto-Brythonic: *hɨɣ

Middle Welsh: hy

Welsh: hy, hyf

desc

Celtiberian: Segouia (“Segovia”), Sekobirikez (“Segobriga”) (ablative singular)

Gaulish: *segos (in personal names)

⇒ Gaulish: *Segostikā (“Sisak, Segestica, Segesta”) (possibly)

→ Ancient Greek: Σεγεστική (Segestikḗ)

→ Latin: Segestica

Middle Irish: seg

⇒ Lepontic: 𐌔𐌄𐌗𐌄𐌈𐌖 (sexeθu, “?”)

From Proto-Indo-European *séǵʰos (“power, strength”). Cognate with Proto-Germanic *segaz (“victory”).


altos

altos (masculine nominative singular stem)
altou (dual masculine nominative stem)
altoi (masculine nominative plural stem)
alte (masculine singular stem vocative)
altou (dual masculine stem vocative)
altūs (masculine plural stem vocative)
altom (accusative masculine singular stem)
altou (accusative dual masculine stem)
altoms (accusative masculine plural stem)
altī (genitive masculine singular stem)
altous (dual genitive masculine stem)
altom (genitive masculine plural stem)
altūi (dative masculine singular stem)
altobom (dative dual masculine stem)
altobos (dative masculine plural stem)
altei (locative masculine singular stem)
altū (instrumental masculine singular stem)
altobim (dual instrumental masculine stem)
altūis (instrumental masculine plural stem)

Proto-Brythonic: *alt

Welsh: allt

Breton: aod

Cornish: als

Middle Irish: alt

Irish: ailt

From Proto-Indo-European *h₂eltós, from Proto-Indo-European *h₂el-. Cognate with Latin altus, Old High German alt.


altos

berxtos (nominative singular)
berxtou (dual nominative)
berxtoi (nominative plural)
berxte (singular vocative)
berxtou (dual vocative)
berxtoi (plural vocative)
berxtom (accusative singular)
berxtou (accusative dual)
berxtoms (accusative plural)
berxtī (genitive singular)
berxtous (dual genitive)
berxtom (genitive plural)
berxtūi (dative singular)
berxtobom (dative dual)
berxtobos (dative plural)
berxtū (instrumental singular)
berxtobim (dual instrumental)
berxtobis (instrumental plural)
berxtā (nominative singular)
berxtai (dual nominative)
berxtās (nominative plural)
berxtā (singular vocative)
berxtai (dual vocative)
berxtās (plural vocative)
berxtam (accusative singular)
berxtai (accusative dual)
berxtams (accusative plural)
berxtās (genitive singular)
berxtai (dative singular)
berxtābom (dative dual)
berxtābos (dative plural)
berxtābim (dual instrumental)
berxtābis (instrumental plural)
berxtom (nominative singular)
berxtā (nominative plural)
berxtom (singular vocative)
berxtā (plural vocative)
berxtā (accusative plural)

past participle of *aleti (“to nourish”): nourished, fostered


malati

melū (active first-person present singular)
malamam (active first-person imperfect singular)
mimlāsū (active first-person future singular)
milam (active first-person preterite singular)
malasi (active present second-person singular)
malatās (active imperfect second-person singular)
mimlāsesi (active future second-person singular)
mils (active preterite second-person singular)
malati (active present singular third-person)
malato (active imperfect singular third-person)
mimlāseti (active future singular third-person)
milt (active preterite singular third-person)
melomosi (active first-person plural present)
malamo (active first-person imperfect plural)
mimlāsomosi (active first-person future plural)
milme (active first-person plural preterite)
malatesi (active plural present second-person)
malastē (active imperfect plural second-person)
mimlāsetesi (active future plural second-person)
milte (active plural preterite second-person)
melonti (active plural present third-person)
malanto (active imperfect plural third-person)
mimlāsonti (active future plural third-person)
milant (active plural preterite third-person)
malasū (active first-person present singular subjunctive)
malasesi (active present second-person singular subjunctive)
mala (active imperative second-person singular)
malaseti (active present singular subjunctive third-person)
malatou (active imperative singular third-person)
malasomosi (active first-person plural present subjunctive)
melomos (active first-person imperative plural)
malasetesi (active plural present second-person subjunctive)
malate (active imperative plural second-person)
malasonti (active plural present subjunctive third-person)
melontou (active imperative plural third-person)
melūr (first-person passive present singular)
mimlāsūr (first-person future passive singular)
malatar (passive present second-person singular)
mimlāsetar (future passive second-person singular)
malator (passive present singular third-person)
mimlāsetor (future passive singular third-person)
melommor (first-person passive plural present)
mimlāsommor (first-person future passive plural)
maladwe (passive plural present second-person)
mimlāsedwe (future passive plural second-person)
melontor (passive plural present third-person)
mimlāsontor (future passive plural third-person)
malasūr (first-person passive present singular subjunctive)
malasetar (passive present second-person singular subjunctive)
malasetor (passive present singular subjunctive third-person)
malasommor (first-person passive plural present subjunctive)
malasedwe (passive plural present second-person subjunctive)
malasontor (passive plural present subjunctive third-person)

Proto-Brythonic: *malɨd

Breton: mala

Welsh: malu

desctree

Old Irish: meilid
Irish: meil
Scottish Gaelic: meil

From Proto-Indo-European *melh₂- (“to grind”). Various explanations exist for how Brythonic ended up with an a root vowel and Goidelic with an e.
* Watkins claimed that the Brythonic was from an athematic present (where a zero grade could be found), and the Goidelic would be from a thematic present. However, Schumacher points out that a laryngeal-final athematic present would be expected to produce a weak verb, for which no trace in Celtic exists.
* Schumacher thinks that the Brythonic root variant was derived from the zero grade and was the sole present allomorph in Proto-Celtic. He further explains the Irish stem mel- as generated by some secondary analogical means, via some expectation that the present should be in the e-grade. Schumacher cites two possible sources of analogy. One of them was *gʷeleti (“to graze”), which had similar phonological shape and shared a semantic field. The other influence would be the subjunctive, which in strong verbs is expected to have the e-grade which also often occurs in the present stem as well. But Joseph's law would mean that the entire subjunctive would have a stem *malas- in this verb, invalidating the subjunctive as an influence.
* Matasović is agnostic on which root vowel came first, merely remarking that the Brythonic reflects the zero grade and Goidelic the e-grade.
* Darling integrates both the *mal- and *mel- stems in a single present paradigm, starting with a simple e-grade thematic present *melh₂-e-ti. Whenever the thematic vowel was *e (in the 2nd person, and in the 3rd-person singular), it would be coloured by the laryngeal into *a, which would then feed Joseph's Law (*eRa > *aRa, where *R is a resonant), and turn the root vowel into *a; the Brythonic present stem can be derived by leveling the a across the present stem. Meanwhile, the forms with thematic vowel *-o- would not be a-coloured and thus the root vowel remains as *e; the Goidelic forms would be derived from leveling the e across the present stem.


mene

Proto-Brythonic: *mɨn, *mow

Breton: ma

Cornish: ma

Old Welsh: mi

Middle Welsh: vy, meu

Welsh: fy

Old Irish: mo, muí

Irish: mo

Scottish Gaelic: mo

Manx: my (“my”)

From Proto-Indo-European *h₁mene, genitive of *éǵh₂. Direct cognates include Proto-Slavic *mene.


katus

katus (nominative singular)
katū (dual nominative)
katowes (nominative plural)
katu (singular vocative)
katū (dual vocative)
katūs (plural vocative)
katum (accusative singular)
katū (accusative dual)
katums (accusative plural)
katous (genitive singular)
katous (dual genitive)
katowom (genitive plural)
katou (dative singular)
katubom (dative dual)
katubos (dative plural)
katū (instrumental singular)
katubim (dual instrumental)
katubis (instrumental plural)

desctree

Brythonic: *kad
Breton: kad
Cornish: kas
Welsh: cad

Primitive Irish ᚉᚐᚈᚈᚒ (cattu)

Old Irish: cath

Irish: cath

Manx: cah

Scottish Gaelic: cath

Gaulish: cattos

From Proto-Indo-European *kéh₃tus (“battle”).


tullos

tullos (nominative singular)
tullou (dual nominative)
tulloi (nominative plural)
tulle (singular vocative)
tullou (dual vocative)
tulloi (plural vocative)
tullom (accusative singular)
tullou (accusative dual)
tulloms (accusative plural)
tullī (genitive singular)
tullous (dual genitive)
tullom (genitive plural)
tullūi (dative singular)
tullobom (dative dual)
tullobos (dative plural)
tullū (instrumental singular)
tullobim (dual instrumental)
tullobis (instrumental plural)
tullā (nominative singular)
tullai (dual nominative)
tullās (nominative plural)
tullā (singular vocative)
tullai (dual vocative)
tullās (plural vocative)
tullam (accusative singular)
tullai (accusative dual)
tullams (accusative plural)
tullās (genitive singular)
tullai (dative singular)
tullābom (dative dual)
tullābos (dative plural)
tullābim (dual instrumental)
tullābis (instrumental plural)
tullom (nominative singular)
tullā (nominative plural)
tullom (singular vocative)
tullā (plural vocative)
tullā (accusative plural)

Proto-Brythonic:

Old Breton: tull (“foramen”)

Middle Breton: toull

Breton: toull (“hole”)

Cornish: toll, tol

Middle Welsh: twll

Welsh: twll (“hole”)

Old Irish: toll

Irish: toll

Celtiberian:

→ Galician: tol

→ Spanish: tollo

Perhaps from earlier *tux-slo-, from Proto-Indo-European *tuk-slo-, from the root *tewk- (“to push, press (into), beat; to pierce, perforate”), an extended form of *(s)tew-. However, the attested Celtic reflexes show no trace of the presumed *x.


gentis

gentis (nominative singular)
gentī (dual nominative)
gentīs (nominative plural)
genti (singular vocative)
gentī (dual vocative)
gentīs (plural vocative)
gentim (accusative singular)
gentī (accusative dual)
gentims (accusative plural)
genteis (genitive singular)
gentyow (dual genitive)
gentyom (genitive plural)
gentei (dative singular)
gentibom (dative dual)
gentibos (dative plural)
gentei (locative singular)
gentī (instrumental singular)
gentibim (dual instrumental)
gentibis (instrumental plural)

desc

Proto-Brythonic: *-ɣɨnt (personal name element)

⇒ Old Welsh: Bledgint

Celtiberian: kentis

From Proto-Indo-European *ǵénh₁tis (“birth”).


ambi

Brythonic:

Middle Breton: am, em

Old Welsh: im

Middle Welsh: am

Welsh: am

desctree

Old Irish: imb
Irish: um
Scottish Gaelic: mu
Manx: mysh


daru

daru (nominative singular)
darū (dual nominative)
darwā (nominative plural)
daru (singular vocative)
darū (dual vocative)
darwā (plural vocative)
daru (accusative singular)
darū (accusative dual)
darwā (accusative plural)
darous (genitive singular)
darous (dual genitive)
darowom (genitive plural)
darou (dative singular)
darubom (dative dual)
darubos (dative plural)
darū (instrumental singular)
darubim (dual instrumental)
darubis (instrumental plural)

Proto-Brythonic: *dar
Old Breton: dar
Breton: dar
Old Cornish: dar
Cornish: dar
Middle Welsh: dar
Welsh: dâr

Old Irish: dair, daur (early)
Irish: dair
Manx: darragh
Scottish Gaelic: darach

Gaulish:

→? Ancient Greek: λάριξ (lárix)

→ Latin: larix (see there for further descendants)

From Proto-Indo-European *dóru (“tree”).


ankus

ankus (nominative singular)
ankū (dual nominative)
ankowes (nominative plural)
anku (singular vocative)
ankū (dual vocative)
ankūs (plural vocative)
ankum (accusative singular)
ankū (accusative dual)
ankums (accusative plural)
ankous (genitive singular)
ankous (dual genitive)
ankowom (genitive plural)
ankou (dative singular)
ankubom (dative dual)
ankubos (dative plural)
ankū (instrumental singular)
ankubim (dual instrumental)
ankubis (instrumental plural)

desc

Proto-Brythonic: *ankow (from the plural stem)

Old Breton: ancou

Middle Breton: ancou, ancaou

Breton: ankoù

⇒ Breton: Ankoù

→ French: Ankou

→ English: Ankou

Old Cornish: ancou

Cornish: ankow

Middle Welsh: angheu

Welsh: angau

Welsh: Angau

desctree

Old Irish: éc
Irish: éag
Scottish Gaelic: eug

From Proto-Indo-European *n̥ḱ-ú-s ~ *n̥k-éw-s (“dead; mortal”).


subi

subi (nominative singular)
subī (dual nominative)
subyā (nominative plural)
subi (singular vocative)
subī (dual vocative)
subyā (plural vocative)
subi (accusative singular)
subī (accusative dual)
subyā (accusative plural)
subois (genitive singular)
subois (dual genitive)
subyom (genitive plural)
subei (dative singular)
subibom (dative dual)
subibos (dative plural)
subei (locative singular)
subī (instrumental singular)
subibim (dual instrumental)
subibis (instrumental plural)

Presumably from a non-Indo-European substrate loan, though the pattern of declension found in Old Irish suib looks archaic.
An older hypothesis posited Proto-Indo-European *su-b⁽ʰ⁾- (“to squeeze, pour; juice”) as the source.

der

Old Irish: suibMiddle Irish: sub fIrish: sú fManx: sooScottish Gaelic: sùbh


damos

damos (masculine nominative singular stem)
damou (dual masculine nominative stem)
damoi (masculine nominative plural stem)
dame (masculine singular stem vocative)
damou (dual masculine stem vocative)
damūs (masculine plural stem vocative)
damom (accusative masculine singular stem)
damou (accusative dual masculine stem)
damoms (accusative masculine plural stem)
damī (genitive masculine singular stem)
damous (dual genitive masculine stem)
damom (genitive masculine plural stem)
damūi (dative masculine singular stem)
damobom (dative dual masculine stem)
damobos (dative masculine plural stem)
damei (locative masculine singular stem)
damū (instrumental masculine singular stem)
damobim (dual instrumental masculine stem)
damūis (instrumental masculine plural stem)

desctree

Old Irish: dam
Middle Irish: dam
Irish: damh
Manx: dow
Scottish Gaelic: damh

From Proto-Indo-European *demh₂- (“to domesticate, tame”). Compare Albanian dem (“bull”) from the same root.


nowe

Proto-Brythonic: *now

Old Breton: nou

Old Welsh: neu, nou

Middle Welsh: neu

Welsh: neu, nou

desctree

Old Irish: nó, no, nú, ꝉ
Irish: nó
Manx: ny
Scottish Gaelic: no, neo

From Proto-Indo-European *ne-we, from *ne (“not”) + *-wē (“or”), literally “or not”. Compare Latin nēve, which was formed identically.


nowan

desctree

Proto-Brythonic: *naw
Old Breton: nau
Middle Breton: nau
Breton: nav
Cornish: naw
Middle Welsh: naw
Welsh: naw

Old Irish: noí
Irish: naoi
Manx: nuy
Scottish Gaelic: naoi

>? Gaulish: nau


karos

karos (nominative singular)
karou (dual nominative)
karoi (nominative plural)
kare (singular vocative)
karou (dual vocative)
karoi (plural vocative)
karom (accusative singular)
karou (accusative dual)
karoms (accusative plural)
karī (genitive singular)
karous (dual genitive)
karom (genitive plural)
karūi (dative singular)
karobom (dative dual)
karobos (dative plural)
karū (instrumental singular)
karobim (dual instrumental)
karobis (instrumental plural)
karā (nominative singular)
karai (dual nominative)
karās (nominative plural)
karā (singular vocative)
karai (dual vocative)
karās (plural vocative)
karam (accusative singular)
karai (accusative dual)
karams (accusative plural)
karās (genitive singular)
karai (dative singular)
karābom (dative dual)
karābos (dative plural)
karābim (dual instrumental)
karābis (instrumental plural)
karom (nominative singular)
karā (nominative plural)
karom (singular vocative)
karā (plural vocative)
karā (accusative plural)

Gaulish: *karos

⇒ Gaulish: *Karos (personal name)

→ Latin: Carus

From Proto-Indo-European *kh₂-ró-s, from *keh₂- (“to desire”) + *-rós. Cognate with Proto-Italic *kāros (“dear”), Latvian kārs (“lustful, desirous”), Proto-Germanic *hōraz (“adulterer”).


marnati

marnami (active first-person present singular)
marnamam (active first-person imperfect singular)
mimrāsū (active first-person future singular)
mirta (active first-person preterite singular)
marnasi (active present second-person singular)
marnatās (active imperfect second-person singular)
mimrāsesi (active future second-person singular)
mirtas? (active preterite second-person singular)
marnati (active present singular third-person)
marnato (active imperfect singular third-person)
mimrāseti (active future singular third-person)
mirte (active preterite singular third-person)
marnamosi (active first-person plural present)
marnamo (active first-person imperfect plural)
mimrāsomosi (active first-person future plural)
mirtmo (active first-person plural preterite)
marnatesi (active plural present second-person)
marnastē (active imperfect plural second-person)
mimrāsetesi (active future plural second-person)
mirsse (active plural preterite second-person)
marnanti (active plural present third-person)
marnanto (active imperfect plural third-person)
mimrāsonti (active future plural third-person)
mirtars (active plural preterite third-person)
merasū (active first-person present singular subjunctive)
merasesi (active present second-person singular subjunctive)
marna (active imperative second-person singular)
meraseti (active present singular subjunctive third-person)
marnatou (active imperative singular third-person)
merasomosi (active first-person plural present subjunctive)
marnamos (active first-person imperative plural)
merasetesi (active plural present second-person subjunctive)
marnate (active imperative plural second-person)
merasonti (active plural present subjunctive third-person)
marnantou (active imperative plural third-person)
marnar (first-person passive present singular)
mimrāsūr (first-person future passive singular)
marnatar (passive present second-person singular)
mimrāsetar (future passive second-person singular)
marnator (passive present singular third-person)
mimrāsetor (future passive singular third-person)
marnammor (first-person passive plural present)
mimrāsommor (first-person future passive plural)
marnadwe (passive plural present second-person)
mimrāsedwe (future passive plural second-person)
marnantor (passive plural present third-person)
mimrāsontor (future passive plural third-person)
merasūr (first-person passive present singular subjunctive)
merasetar (passive present second-person singular subjunctive)
merasetor (passive present singular subjunctive third-person)
merasommor (first-person passive plural present subjunctive)
merasedwe (passive plural present second-person subjunctive)
merasontor (passive plural present subjunctive third-person)

Old Irish: marnaid
Middle Irish: mairnid
⇒ Irish: braith (denominative from the verbal noun)

Perhaps from Proto-Indo-European *mr̥-né-h₂-ti, nasal infix present of *merh₂- (“to crumble, destroy”); if so, cognate with Ancient Greek μάρναμαι (márnamai, “to fight”) and possibly Sanskrit मृणाति (mṛṇāti, “to crumble”) and Old Norse merja (“to hit”), though the latter two may have other etymologies.


oinos

oinos (nominative singular)
oinou (dual nominative)
oinoi (nominative plural)
oine (singular vocative)
oinou (dual vocative)
oinoi (plural vocative)
oinom (accusative singular)
oinou (accusative dual)
oinoms (accusative plural)
oinī (genitive singular)
oinous (dual genitive)
oinom (genitive plural)
oinūi (dative singular)
oinobom (dative dual)
oinobos (dative plural)
oinū (instrumental singular)
oinobim (dual instrumental)
oinobis (instrumental plural)
oinā (nominative singular)
oinai (dual nominative)
oinās (nominative plural)
oinā (singular vocative)
oinai (dual vocative)
oinās (plural vocative)
oinam (accusative singular)
oinai (accusative dual)
oinams (accusative plural)
oinās (genitive singular)
oinai (dative singular)
oinābom (dative dual)
oinābos (dative plural)
oinābim (dual instrumental)
oinābis (instrumental plural)
oinom (nominative singular)
oinā (nominative plural)
oinom (singular vocative)
oinā (plural vocative)
oinā (accusative plural)

desctree

Proto-Brythonic: *ʉn
Old Breton: un
Middle Breton: un
Breton: un
Cornish: unn
Old Welsh: un
Middle Welsh: un
Welsh: un

Old Irish: óen, oín
Middle Irish: óen
Irish: aon
Manx: un
Scottish Gaelic: aon

Gaulish: oino


aros

aros (masculine nominative singular stem)
arou (dual masculine nominative stem)
aroi (masculine nominative plural stem)
are (masculine singular stem vocative)
arou (dual masculine stem vocative)
arūs (masculine plural stem vocative)
arom (accusative masculine singular stem)
arou (accusative dual masculine stem)
aroms (accusative masculine plural stem)
arī (genitive masculine singular stem)
arous (dual genitive masculine stem)
arom (genitive masculine plural stem)
arūi (dative masculine singular stem)
arobom (dative dual masculine stem)
arobos (dative masculine plural stem)
arei (locative masculine singular stem)
arū (instrumental masculine singular stem)
arobim (dual instrumental masculine stem)
arūis (instrumental masculine plural stem)

Proto-Brythonic: *ar

Middle Welsh: ar

Old Irish: ar

From Proto-Indo-European *h₂erh₃-o- (“ploughing”), from *h₂erh₃- (“to plough”). Cognate with Proto-Italic *ara, *owom (compare Latin arvum (“ploughed land”)), Ancient Greek ἄρουρα (ároura, “sowing-land”), Sanskrit उर्वरा (urvarā, “field yielding crop”). Related to Proto-Celtic *aryeti (“to plough”), *arawar (“cereal, grain”).


taras

Proto-Brythonic: *tra

Old Breton: tra

Breton: tra, dre

Middle Welsh: tra

Welsh: tra

desctree

Old Irish: tar
Irish: thar
Manx: har, harrish
Scottish Gaelic: thar

From Proto-Indo-European *tr̥h₂és (“through, across”). Cognate with Proto-Indo-Iranian *tr̥Hás (“through”).


latis

latis (nominative singular)
latī (dual nominative)
latīs (nominative plural)
lati (singular vocative)
latī (dual vocative)
latīs (plural vocative)
latim (accusative singular)
latī (accusative dual)
latims (accusative plural)
lateis (genitive singular)
latyow (dual genitive)
latyom (genitive plural)
latei (dative singular)
latibom (dative dual)
latibos (dative plural)
latei (locative singular)
latī (instrumental singular)
latibim (dual instrumental)
latibis (instrumental plural)

desc

Proto-Brythonic: *llad (“alcoholic beverage”)

Old Breton: lat

Old Cornish: lad

Middle Welsh: llad, llat

Welsh: llad

Old Irish: laith (“alcoholic beverage”)

Middle Irish: laith

Gaulish: *latis (“swamp, marsh”)

→ Latin: Latis (ancient name of an Italian river)

→⇒ Latin: Arelate (via a prepositional phrase *are latē "by the marsh")

French: Arles, Arlet

Occitan: Arle, Arlet

Matasović, Pokorny, and the GPC assume the senses "beverage" and "swamp" share an etymology. Irslinger breaks with this tradition by positing that they have separate etymologies.
* Cognates identified by Pokorny (which he unites under a root *lat-) include Old High German letto (“silt”), Icelandic leðja (“mud”), Ancient Greek λᾰ́τᾰξ (látax, “drop of wine”), and Latin latex. Matasović rejects any relation to the Greek and Latin words.
* Matasović, due to struggling to etymologize the *a in this word, assigns substrate origin.
* Irslinger posits two possible Indo-European root origins for the "beverage" sense, Proto-Indo-European *pleh₁- (“to fill”) and *leh₂- (“to pour”), preferring the latter root. For the sense "swamp", she maintains the comparisons to Old High German letto (“silt”) and Icelandic leðja (“mud”) but assigns no further etymology to them.


meros

meros (nominative singular)
merou (dual nominative)
meroi (nominative plural)
mere (singular vocative)
merou (dual vocative)
meroi (plural vocative)
merom (accusative singular)
merou (accusative dual)
meroms (accusative plural)
merī (genitive singular)
merous (dual genitive)
merom (genitive plural)
merūi (dative singular)
merobom (dative dual)
merobos (dative plural)
merū (instrumental singular)
merobim (dual instrumental)
merobis (instrumental plural)
merā (nominative singular)
merai (dual nominative)
merās (nominative plural)
merā (singular vocative)
merai (dual vocative)
merās (plural vocative)
meram (accusative singular)
merai (accusative dual)
merams (accusative plural)
merās (genitive singular)
merai (dative singular)
merābom (dative dual)
merābos (dative plural)
merābim (dual instrumental)
merābis (instrumental plural)
merom (nominative singular)
merā (nominative plural)
merom (singular vocative)
merā (plural vocative)
merā (accusative plural)

Brittonic:

desc

suffixed with <i class="Latn mention" lang="cy">-edig</i>

⇒ Middle Welsh: meredig (suffixed with -edig)

Middle Irish: mer

Irish: mear

Gaulish: *meros

→⇒ Latin: Atimeria

→⇒ Latin: Calemerus

→⇒ Latin: Dumerius

→⇒ Latin: Esmerius

→⇒ Latin: Mereus

→⇒ Latin: Merobaudes

→⇒ Latin: Merocles

→⇒ Latin: Mereus

→⇒ Latin: Merogaisus

→⇒ Latin: Mereus

Possibly related to Ancient Greek μωρός (mōrós, “slow; foolish, stupid”),, from a root Proto-Indo-European *merh₂- (“to delay”); a derivation from this root can be justified given the known semantic pathway of deriving words for mental disabilities from words meaning "slow" or "delayed". However, for unknown reasons, Zair is uncomfortable with relating this root to the Ancient Greek word.


alyos

alyos (nominative singular)
alyou (dual nominative)
alyoi (nominative plural)
alye (singular vocative)
alyou (dual vocative)
alyoi (plural vocative)
alyom (accusative singular)
alyou (accusative dual)
alyoms (accusative plural)
alyī (genitive singular)
alyous (dual genitive)
alyom (genitive plural)
alyūi (dative singular)
alyobom (dative dual)
alyobos (dative plural)
alyū (instrumental singular)
alyobim (dual instrumental)
alyobis (instrumental plural)
alyā (nominative singular)
alyai (dual nominative)
alyās (nominative plural)
alyā (singular vocative)
alyai (dual vocative)
alyās (plural vocative)
alyam (accusative singular)
alyai (accusative dual)
alyams (accusative plural)
alyās (genitive singular)
alyai (dative singular)
alyābom (dative dual)
alyābos (dative plural)
alyābim (dual instrumental)
alyābis (instrumental plural)
alyom (nominative singular)
alyā (nominative plural)
alyom (singular vocative)
alyā (plural vocative)
alyā (accusative plural)

desctree

Proto-Brythonic: *ėl
Middle Breton: eil
Cornish: eyl
Middle Welsh: eil
Welsh: ail

Old Irish: aile
Middle Irish: aile, oile, eile
Irish: eile
Manx: elley
Scottish Gaelic: eile

Gaulish: allos, alos

Lepontic: 𐌀𐌋𐌉𐌏𐌔 (alios)


dagos

dagos (nominative singular)
dagou (dual nominative)
dagoi (nominative plural)
dage (singular vocative)
dagou (dual vocative)
dagoi (plural vocative)
dagom (accusative singular)
dagou (accusative dual)
dagoms (accusative plural)
dagī (genitive singular)
dagous (dual genitive)
dagom (genitive plural)
dagūi (dative singular)
dagobom (dative dual)
dagobos (dative plural)
dagū (instrumental singular)
dagobim (dual instrumental)
dagobis (instrumental plural)
dagā (nominative singular)
dagai (dual nominative)
dagās (nominative plural)
dagā (singular vocative)
dagai (dual vocative)
dagās (plural vocative)
dagam (accusative singular)
dagai (accusative dual)
dagams (accusative plural)
dagās (genitive singular)
dagai (dative singular)
dagābom (dative dual)
dagābos (dative plural)
dagābim (dual instrumental)
dagābis (instrumental plural)
dagom (nominative singular)
dagā (nominative plural)
dagom (singular vocative)
dagā (plural vocative)
dagā (accusative plural)

Proto-Brythonic: *daɣ (attested in the Bath curse tablets as an-dagin (“worthless”, accusative singular feminine)).

Breton: da

Cornish: dâ

Middle Welsh: da

Welsh: da

Old Irish: dag-, deg-
Irish: dea-, deagh- (superseded); deá- (Cois Fharraige)
Scottish Gaelic: deagh

Gaulish: dagos

Unknown. None of the proposed etymologies is plausible (compare ταχύς (takhús, “fast”), tækur (“acceptable”).


rotos

rotos (masculine nominative singular stem)
rotou (dual masculine nominative stem)
rotoi (masculine nominative plural stem)
rote (masculine singular stem vocative)
rotou (dual masculine stem vocative)
rotūs (masculine plural stem vocative)
rotom (accusative masculine singular stem)
rotou (accusative dual masculine stem)
rotoms (accusative masculine plural stem)
rotī (genitive masculine singular stem)
rotous (dual genitive masculine stem)
rotom (genitive masculine plural stem)
rotūi (dative masculine singular stem)
rotobom (dative dual masculine stem)
rotobos (dative masculine plural stem)
rotei (locative masculine singular stem)
rotū (instrumental masculine singular stem)
rotobim (dual instrumental masculine stem)
rotūis (instrumental masculine plural stem)

Proto-Brythonic: *rrod
Breton: rod
Cornish: ros
Welsh: rhod

Old Irish: roth
Irish: roth
Scottish Gaelic: roth

⇒ Gaulish: *Rotomagos

→ Latin: Rotomagus

From Proto-Indo-European *Hret- (“to run”).


senos

head

*senos (comparative *senyūs, superlative *senisamos)

senyūs (comparative)
senisamos (superlative)
senos (nominative singular)
senou (dual nominative)
senoi (nominative plural)
sene (singular vocative)
senou (dual vocative)
senoi (plural vocative)
senom (accusative singular)
senou (accusative dual)
senoms (accusative plural)
senī (genitive singular)
senous (dual genitive)
senom (genitive plural)
senūi (dative singular)
senobom (dative dual)
senobos (dative plural)
senū (instrumental singular)
senobim (dual instrumental)
senobis (instrumental plural)
senā (nominative singular)
senai (dual nominative)
senās (nominative plural)
senā (singular vocative)
senai (dual vocative)
senās (plural vocative)
senam (accusative singular)
senai (accusative dual)
senams (accusative plural)
senās (genitive singular)
senai (dative singular)
senābom (dative dual)
senābos (dative plural)
senābim (dual instrumental)
senābis (instrumental plural)
senom (nominative singular)
senā (nominative plural)
senom (singular vocative)
senā (plural vocative)
senā (accusative plural)

desctree

Proto-Brythonic: *hen
Breton: hen
Cornish: hen
Welsh: hen

Old Irish: sen

Irish: sean

Manx: shenn

Scottish Gaelic: sean

Gaulish: *senos

Gaulish: *Senones

→ Latin: Senones

Galatian: sen-, sin-


ati-

Proto-Brythonic: *ad-

Cornish: as-

Welsh: ad-

Old Irish: aith-, ath- (broad form)
Irish: ath-
Manx: aa-
Scottish Gaelic: ath-

From Proto-Indo-European *éti. Cognate with English ed-, Latin et (“and”), Sanskrit अति- (áti-, “very”).


koros

koros (masculine nominative singular stem)
korou (dual masculine nominative stem)
koroi (masculine nominative plural stem)
kore (masculine singular stem vocative)
korou (dual masculine stem vocative)
korūs (masculine plural stem vocative)
korom (accusative masculine singular stem)
korou (accusative dual masculine stem)
koroms (accusative masculine plural stem)
korī (genitive masculine singular stem)
korous (dual genitive masculine stem)
korom (genitive masculine plural stem)
korūi (dative masculine singular stem)
korobom (dative dual masculine stem)
korobos (dative masculine plural stem)
korei (locative masculine singular stem)
korū (instrumental masculine singular stem)
korobim (dual instrumental masculine stem)
korūis (instrumental masculine plural stem)

Old Irish: cor
Middle Irish: cor
Irish: cor, cur
Scottish Gaelic: cur
Manx: cur

From Proto-Indo-European *(s)ker- (“to turn”), suffixed with *-os (verbal noun suffix).


magos

magos (neuter nominative singular)
magese? (dual neuter nominative)
magesa (neuter nominative plural)
magos (neuter singular vocative)
magese? (dual neuter vocative)
magesa (neuter plural vocative)
magos (accusative neuter singular)
magese? (accusative dual neuter)
magesa (accusative neuter plural)
magesos (genitive neuter singular)
magesous? (dual genitive neuter)
magesom (genitive neuter plural)
magesē (dative neuter singular)
magesbom (dative dual neuter)
magesbos (dative neuter plural)
magesi (locative neuter singular)
magesē (instrumental neuter singular)
magesbim (dual instrumental neuter)
magesbis (instrumental neuter plural)

Proto-Brythonic: *maɣ

Old Breton: -ma

Breton: -va

Cornish: -va

Middle Welsh: -ma

Welsh: -fa

Gaulish: *magos

Old Irish: mag

Irish: má

Scottish Gaelic: magh

Possibly from Proto-Indo-European *meǵh₂- (“great”) with a semantic shift from "great one" > "soil; plain". See Sanskrit मही (mahī́, “earth”) for a similar semantic development.


tegus

tegus (nominative singular)
tegū (dual nominative)
tegowes (nominative plural)
tegu (singular vocative)
tegū (dual vocative)
tegūs (plural vocative)
tegum (accusative singular)
tegū (accusative dual)
tegums (accusative plural)
tegous (genitive singular)
tegous (dual genitive)
tegowom (genitive plural)
tegou (dative singular)
tegubom (dative dual)
tegubos (dative plural)
tegū (instrumental singular)
tegubim (dual instrumental)
tegubis (instrumental plural)
tegu (nominative singular)
tegwā (nominative plural)
tegwā (plural vocative)
tegu (accusative singular)
tegwā (accusative plural)

desctree

Proto-Brythonic: *teɣ
Middle Breton: teo, teu
Cornish: tew
Old Welsh: teu
Middle Welsh: tew
Welsh: tew

Old Irish: tiug
Irish: tiubh
Manx: çhiu
Scottish Gaelic: tiugh


taskos

taskos (masculine nominative singular stem)
taskou (dual masculine nominative stem)
taskoi (masculine nominative plural stem)
taske (masculine singular stem vocative)
taskou (dual masculine stem vocative)
taskūs (masculine plural stem vocative)
taskom (accusative masculine singular stem)
taskou (accusative dual masculine stem)
taskoms (accusative masculine plural stem)
taskī (genitive masculine singular stem)
taskous (dual genitive masculine stem)
taskom (genitive masculine plural stem)
taskūi (dative masculine singular stem)
taskobom (dative dual masculine stem)
taskobos (dative masculine plural stem)
taskei (locative masculine singular stem)
taskū (instrumental masculine singular stem)
taskobim (dual instrumental masculine stem)
taskūis (instrumental masculine plural stem)

Old Irish: tadg

Middle Irish: Tadg (personal name)

Irish: Tadhg
→ English: taig, Teague
→ Yola: Thieg

Gaulish: *tasgos

→ Latin: taxo

Galatian: τασκός (taskós)

From Proto-Indo-European *toskos (“badger”). Cognate with Proto-Germanic *þahsuz.


legus

head

*legus (comparative *lagyūs, superlative *lagisamos)

lagyūs (comparative)
lagisamos (superlative)
legos (nominative singular)
legou (dual nominative)
legoi (nominative plural)
lege (singular vocative)
legou (dual vocative)
legoi (plural vocative)
legom (accusative singular)
legou (accusative dual)
legoms (accusative plural)
legī (genitive singular)
legous (dual genitive)
legom (genitive plural)
legūi (dative singular)
legobom (dative dual)
legobos (dative plural)
legū (instrumental singular)
legobim (dual instrumental)
legobis (instrumental plural)
legā (nominative singular)
legai (dual nominative)
legās (nominative plural)
legā (singular vocative)
legai (dual vocative)
legās (plural vocative)
legam (accusative singular)
legai (accusative dual)
legams (accusative plural)
legās (genitive singular)
legai (dative singular)
legābom (dative dual)
legābos (dative plural)
legābim (dual instrumental)
legābis (instrumental plural)
legom (nominative singular)
legā (nominative plural)
legom (singular vocative)
legā (plural vocative)
legā (accusative plural)

desctree

Proto-Brythonic: *llaɣw
Old Breton: lau
Middle Breton: lau
Breton: law
Middle Welsh: llaw

Old Irish: lagu, laugu, laigiu

From Proto-Indo-European *h₁léngʰus ~ *h₁ln̥gʷʰéws.


sedeti

sedū (active first-person present singular)
sedemam (active first-person imperfect singular)
sedsū (active first-person future singular)
sāda (active first-person preterite singular)
sedesi (active present second-person singular)
sedetās (active imperfect second-person singular)
sedsesi (active future second-person singular)
sādas? (active preterite second-person singular)
sedeti (active present singular third-person)
sedeto (active imperfect singular third-person)
sedseti (active future singular third-person)
sāde (active preterite singular third-person)
sedomosi (active first-person plural present)
sedemo (active first-person imperfect plural)
sedsomosi (active first-person future plural)
sādmo (active first-person plural preterite)
sedetesi (active plural present second-person)
sedestē (active imperfect plural second-person)
sedsetesi (active future plural second-person)
sāsse (active plural preterite second-person)
sedonti (active plural present third-person)
sedento (active imperfect plural third-person)
sedsonti (active future plural third-person)
sādars (active plural preterite third-person)
sedsū (active first-person present singular subjunctive)
sedsesi (active present second-person singular subjunctive)
sede (active imperative second-person singular)
sedseti (active present singular subjunctive third-person)
sedetou (active imperative singular third-person)
sedsomosi (active first-person plural present subjunctive)
sedomos (active first-person imperative plural)
sedsetesi (active plural present second-person subjunctive)
sedete (active imperative plural second-person)
sedsonti (active plural present subjunctive third-person)
sedontou (active imperative plural third-person)
sedūr (first-person passive present singular)
sedsūr (first-person future passive singular)
sedetar (passive present second-person singular)
sedsetar (future passive second-person singular)
sedetor (passive present singular third-person)
sedsetor (future passive singular third-person)
sedommor (first-person passive plural present)
sedsommor (first-person future passive plural)
sededwe (passive plural present second-person)
sedsedwe (future passive plural second-person)
sedontor (passive plural present third-person)
sedsontor (future passive plural third-person)
sedsūr (first-person passive present singular subjunctive)
sedsetar (passive present second-person singular subjunctive)
sedsetor (passive present singular subjunctive third-person)
sedsommor (first-person passive plural present subjunctive)
sedsedwe (passive plural present second-person subjunctive)
sedsontor (passive plural present subjunctive third-person)
sessos (nominative singular)
sessou (dual nominative)
sessoi (nominative plural)
sesse (singular vocative)
sessou (dual vocative)
sessoi (plural vocative)
sessom (accusative singular)
sessou (accusative dual)
sessoms (accusative plural)
sessī (genitive singular)
sessous (dual genitive)
sessom (genitive plural)
sessūi (dative singular)
sessobom (dative dual)
sessobos (dative plural)
sessū (instrumental singular)
sessobim (dual instrumental)
sessobis (instrumental plural)
sessā (nominative singular)
sessai (dual nominative)
sessās (nominative plural)
sessā (singular vocative)
sessai (dual vocative)
sessās (plural vocative)
sessam (accusative singular)
sessai (accusative dual)
sessams (accusative plural)
sessās (genitive singular)
sessai (dative singular)
sessābom (dative dual)
sessābos (dative plural)
sessābim (dual instrumental)
sessābis (instrumental plural)
sessom (nominative singular)
sessā (nominative plural)
sessom (singular vocative)
sessā (plural vocative)
sessā (accusative plural)

Proto-Brythonic: *heðɨd

Middle Breton: hezaff

Breton: hezañ

Cornish: hedhi

Old Irish: saidid
⇒ Middle Irish: suidid (“to sit, set”) (with vowel changed under the influence of the verbal noun and transitive suidigidir)
Irish: suigh (“to sit, set”)
Manx: soie (“to set”)
Scottish Gaelic: suidh (“to sit”)

From Proto-Indo-European *sed- (“to sit”).

asez (3sg. pres)

Old Breton: assedam (1sg. pres); Middle Breton


kantos

Proto-Brythonic:

Breton: kant

Welsh: cant

⇒ Proto-Brythonic: *Cantio

→ Latin: Cantium
Italian: Canzio
→ Old English: Cent
English: Kent

Welsh: Caint

Gaulish: *cantos

→ Latin: cantus

Uncertain. Compare Proto-Slavic *kǫtъ (“corner”). Less certain is a relation with Ancient Greek κανθός (kanthós, “corner of the eye”).


kartati

kartami (active first-person present singular)
kartamam (active first-person imperfect singular)
kartasi (active present second-person singular)
kartatās (active imperfect second-person singular)
kartati (active present singular third-person)
kartato (active imperfect singular third-person)
kartamosi (active first-person plural present)
kartamo (active first-person imperfect plural)
kartatesi (active plural present second-person)
kartastē (active imperfect plural second-person)
kartanti (active plural present third-person)
kartanto (active imperfect plural third-person)
karta (active imperative second-person singular)
kartatou (active imperative singular third-person)
kartamos (active first-person imperative plural)
kartate (active imperative plural second-person)
kartantou (active imperative plural third-person)
kartar (first-person passive present singular)
kartatar (passive present second-person singular)
kartator (passive present singular third-person)
kartammor (first-person passive plural present)
kartadwe (passive plural present second-person)
kartantor (passive plural present third-person)

Proto-Brythonic: *karθad

Middle Breton: carzaff

Breton: karzhañ

Cornish: kartha

Welsh: carthu

desctree

Middle Irish: cartaid
Irish: cart
Scottish Gaelic: cairt


dant

dant (nominative singular)
danta (nominative plural)
dant (singular vocative)
danta (plural vocative)
dant (accusative singular)
danta (accusative plural)
dantos (genitive singular)
dantom (genitive plural)
dantē (dative singular)
dantobos (dative plural)
danti (locative singular)
dante? (instrumental singular)
dantobis (instrumental plural)

Brythonic: *dant
Old Breton: dant
Middle Breton: dant
Breton: dant
Old Cornish: dans
Cornish: dans
Middle Welsh: dant
Welsh: dant

Old Irish: dét
Irish: déad
Scottish Gaelic: deud


gelos

gelos (nominative singular)
gelou (dual nominative)
geloi (nominative plural)
gele (singular vocative)
gelou (dual vocative)
geloi (plural vocative)
gelom (accusative singular)
gelou (accusative dual)
geloms (accusative plural)
gelī (genitive singular)
gelous (dual genitive)
gelom (genitive plural)
gelūi (dative singular)
gelobom (dative dual)
gelobos (dative plural)
gelū (instrumental singular)
gelobim (dual instrumental)
gelobis (instrumental plural)
gelā (nominative singular)
gelai (dual nominative)
gelās (nominative plural)
gelā (singular vocative)
gelai (dual vocative)
gelās (plural vocative)
gelam (accusative singular)
gelai (accusative dual)
gelams (accusative plural)
gelās (genitive singular)
gelai (dative singular)
gelābom (dative dual)
gelābos (dative plural)
gelābim (dual instrumental)
gelābis (instrumental plural)
gelom (nominative singular)
gelā (nominative plural)
gelom (singular vocative)
gelā (plural vocative)
gelā (accusative plural)

Old Irish: gel
Irish: geal
Manx: gial
Scottish Gaelic: geal

Gaulish: *gelā

→ Gaulish: gelasonem (“cotton-weed”)

From Proto-Indo-European *ǵʰelh₃os, from Proto-Indo-European *ǵʰelh₃- (“to shine”).


keleti

kelū (active first-person present singular)
kelemam (active first-person imperfect singular)
kiklāsū (active first-person future singular)
kilam (active first-person preterite singular)
kelesi (active present second-person singular)
keletās (active imperfect second-person singular)
kiklāsesi (active future second-person singular)
kils (active preterite second-person singular)
keleti (active present singular third-person)
keleto (active imperfect singular third-person)
kiklāseti (active future singular third-person)
kilt (active preterite singular third-person)
kelomosi (active first-person plural present)
kelemo (active first-person imperfect plural)
kiklāsomosi (active first-person future plural)
kilme (active first-person plural preterite)
keletesi (active plural present second-person)
kelestē (active imperfect plural second-person)
kiklāsetesi (active future plural second-person)
kilte (active plural preterite second-person)
kelonti (active plural present third-person)
kelento (active imperfect plural third-person)
kiklāsonti (active future plural third-person)
kilant (active plural preterite third-person)
kelasū (active first-person present singular subjunctive)
kelasesi (active present second-person singular subjunctive)
kele (active imperative second-person singular)
kelaseti (active present singular subjunctive third-person)
keletou (active imperative singular third-person)
kelasomosi (active first-person plural present subjunctive)
kelomos (active first-person imperative plural)
kelasetesi (active plural present second-person subjunctive)
kelete (active imperative plural second-person)
kelasonti (active plural present subjunctive third-person)
kelontou (active imperative plural third-person)
kelūr (first-person passive present singular)
kiklāsūr (first-person future passive singular)
keletar (passive present second-person singular)
kiklāsetar (future passive second-person singular)
keletor (passive present singular third-person)
kiklāsetor (future passive singular third-person)
kelommor (first-person passive plural present)
kiklāsommor (first-person future passive plural)
keledwe (passive plural present second-person)
kiklāsedwe (future passive plural second-person)
kelontor (passive plural present third-person)
kiklāsontor (future passive plural third-person)
kelasūr (first-person passive present singular subjunctive)
kelasetar (passive present second-person singular subjunctive)
kelasetor (passive present singular subjunctive third-person)
kelasommor (first-person passive plural present subjunctive)
kelasedwe (passive plural present second-person subjunctive)
kelasontor (passive plural present subjunctive third-person)
klitos (nominative singular)
klitou (dual nominative)
klitoi (nominative plural)
klite (singular vocative)
klitou (dual vocative)
klitoi (plural vocative)
klitom (accusative singular)
klitou (accusative dual)
klitoms (accusative plural)
klitī (genitive singular)
klitous (dual genitive)
klitom (genitive plural)
klitūi (dative singular)
klitobom (dative dual)
klitobos (dative plural)
klitū (instrumental singular)
klitobim (dual instrumental)
klitobis (instrumental plural)
klitā (nominative singular)
klitai (dual nominative)
klitās (nominative plural)
klitā (singular vocative)
klitai (dual vocative)
klitās (plural vocative)
klitam (accusative singular)
klitai (accusative dual)
klitams (accusative plural)
klitās (genitive singular)
klitai (dative singular)
klitābom (dative dual)
klitābos (dative plural)
klitābim (dual instrumental)
klitābis (instrumental plural)
klitom (nominative singular)
klitā (nominative plural)
klitom (singular vocative)
klitā (plural vocative)
klitā (accusative plural)

Proto-Brythonic: *kelɨd

Middle Breton: keles

Middle Welsh: kelu

Welsh: celu

desctree

Old Irish: ceilid
Irish: ceil
Scottish Gaelic: ceil
Manx: keil
⇒ Scottish Gaelic: culaidh

ymgelu

Old Welsh: immit·cel (3sg present with infixed pronoun); Middle Welsh


ausos

ausos (neuter nominative singular)
ausese? (dual neuter nominative)
ausesa (neuter nominative plural)
ausos (neuter singular vocative)
ausese? (dual neuter vocative)
ausesa (neuter plural vocative)
ausos (accusative neuter singular)
ausese? (accusative dual neuter)
ausesa (accusative neuter plural)
ausesos (genitive neuter singular)
ausesous? (dual genitive neuter)
ausesom (genitive neuter plural)
ausesē (dative neuter singular)
ausesbom (dative dual neuter)
ausesbos (dative neuter plural)
ausesi (locative neuter singular)
ausesē (instrumental neuter singular)
ausesbim (dual instrumental neuter)
ausesbis (instrumental neuter plural)

Old Irish: áu

Middle Irish: ó


stagnos

stāgnos (masculine nominative singular stem)
stāgnou (dual masculine nominative stem)
stāgnoi (masculine nominative plural stem)
stāgne (masculine singular stem vocative)
stāgnou (dual masculine stem vocative)
stāgnūs (masculine plural stem vocative)
stāgnom (accusative masculine singular stem)
stāgnou (accusative dual masculine stem)
stāgnoms (accusative masculine plural stem)
stāgnī (genitive masculine singular stem)
stāgnous (dual genitive masculine stem)
stāgnom (genitive masculine plural stem)
stāgnūi (dative masculine singular stem)
stāgnobom (dative dual masculine stem)
stāgnobos (dative masculine plural stem)
stāgnei (locative masculine singular stem)
stāgnū (instrumental masculine singular stem)
stāgnobim (dual instrumental masculine stem)
stāgnūis (instrumental masculine plural stem)

Proto-Brythonic: *staɨn

Breton: staen

Cornish: sten

Welsh: ystaen

Old Irish: stán

Irish: stán

Scottish Gaelic: staoin

Gaulish: *stagnom

→ Latin: stagnum, stannum (see there for further descendants)

Perhaps from Proto-Indo-European *sth₂gʰ-nó-s (“standing, firm”), from *steh₂-gʰ- + *-nós, from *steh₂- (“to stand”). Cognate with Lithuanian stógas (“build, physique”).


anati

anami (active first-person present singular)
anamam (active first-person imperfect singular)
anasam (active first-person preterite singular)
anasi (active present second-person singular)
anatās (active imperfect second-person singular)
anass (active preterite second-person singular)
anati (active present singular third-person)
anato (active imperfect singular third-person)
anast (active preterite singular third-person)
anamosi (active first-person plural present)
anamo (active first-person imperfect plural)
anasme (active first-person plural preterite)
anatesi (active plural present second-person)
anastē (active imperfect plural second-person)
anaste (active plural preterite second-person)
ananti (active plural present third-person)
ananto (active imperfect plural third-person)
anasant (active plural preterite third-person)
anasū (active first-person present singular subjunctive)
anasesi (active present second-person singular subjunctive)
ana (active imperative second-person singular)
anaseti (active present singular subjunctive third-person)
anatou (active imperative singular third-person)
anasomosi (active first-person plural present subjunctive)
anamos (active first-person imperative plural)
anasetesi (active plural present second-person subjunctive)
anate (active imperative plural second-person)
anasonti (active plural present subjunctive third-person)
anantou (active imperative plural third-person)
anar (first-person passive present singular)
anatar (passive present second-person singular)
anator (passive present singular third-person)
anammor (first-person passive plural present)
anadwe (passive plural present second-person)
anantor (passive plural present third-person)
anasūr (first-person passive present singular subjunctive)
anasetar (passive present second-person singular subjunctive)
anasetor (passive present singular subjunctive third-person)
anasommor (first-person passive plural present subjunctive)
anasedwe (passive plural present second-person subjunctive)
anasontor (passive plural present subjunctive third-person)
anatos (nominative singular)
anatou (dual nominative)
anatoi (nominative plural)
anate (singular vocative)
anatou (dual vocative)
anatoi (plural vocative)
anatom (accusative singular)
anatou (accusative dual)
anatoms (accusative plural)
anatī (genitive singular)
anatous (dual genitive)
anatom (genitive plural)
anatūi (dative singular)
anatobom (dative dual)
anatobos (dative plural)
anatū (instrumental singular)
anatobim (dual instrumental)
anatobis (instrumental plural)
anatā (nominative singular)
anatai (dual nominative)
anatās (nominative plural)
anatā (singular vocative)
anatai (dual vocative)
anatās (plural vocative)
anatam (accusative singular)
anatai (accusative dual)
anatams (accusative plural)
anatās (genitive singular)
anatai (dative singular)
anatābom (dative dual)
anatābos (dative plural)
anatābim (dual instrumental)
anatābis (instrumental plural)
anatom (nominative singular)
anatā (nominative plural)
anatom (singular vocative)
anatā (plural vocative)
anatā (accusative plural)

Proto-Brythonic: *anad

q

< <i class="Latn mention" lang="cel-pro">*exs-anati</i>

⇒ Proto-Brythonic: *exanad (< *exs-anati)

Middle Breton: ehanaff

Breton: ehanañ

< <i class="Latn mention" lang="cel-pro">*kom-anati</i>

⇒ Proto-Brythonic: *köβ̃anad (< *kom-anati)

Middle Welsh: kynhanu

Welsh: cynanu

desc

⇒ Welsh: cynnan (“ready, witty, eloquent”)

desctree

Old Irish: anaid
Middle Irish: fanaid
Irish: fan
Scottish Gaelic: fan

From Proto-Indo-European *h₂énh₁ti (“to breathe”), from the root *h₂enh₁-. Though this etymology is generally accepted, the semantic link is uncertain (maybe via “to exhale, to breathe deeply, to relax, to take a break”). For a parallel development, Matasović compares the derivation of Serbo-Croatian odàhnuti (“to pause”) from dȁh (“breath”).
Cognate with Proto-Germanic *ananą and Sanskrit अनिति (ániti).


sanis

sanis (nominative singular)
sanī (dual nominative)
sanīs (nominative plural)
sani (singular vocative)
sanī (dual vocative)
sanīs (plural vocative)
sanim (accusative singular)
sanī (accusative dual)
sanims (accusative plural)
sanēs (genitive singular)
sanyou (dual genitive)
sanyom (genitive plural)
sanē (dative singular)
sanibom (dative dual)
sanibos (dative plural)
sanī (instrumental singular)
sanibim (dual instrumental)
sanibis (instrumental plural)
sani (nominative singular)
sanyā (nominative plural)
sanyā (plural vocative)
sani (accusative singular)
sanyā (accusative plural)
sanois (genitive singular)
sanois (dual genitive)

Proto-Brythonic:

Old Breton: han

⇒ Middle Breton: ahanoff (“from me”)

⇒ Cornish: ohanaw (“from him”)

Old Welsh: han

Welsh: hân

Old Welsh: hanaud (“from him”)

Middle Welsh: ohanaw

Old Irish: sain

From Proto-Indo-European *senH- (“without”); cognate with Sanskrit सनुतर् (sanutar, “away, aside”), Latin sine (“without”), Proto-Germanic *sundraz (“separated”).


orbos

orbos (masculine nominative singular stem)
orbou (dual masculine nominative stem)
orboi (masculine nominative plural stem)
orbe (masculine singular stem vocative)
orbou (dual masculine stem vocative)
orbūs (masculine plural stem vocative)
orbom (accusative masculine singular stem)
orbou (accusative dual masculine stem)
orboms (accusative masculine plural stem)
orbī (genitive masculine singular stem)
orbous (dual genitive masculine stem)
orbom (genitive masculine plural stem)
orbūi (dative masculine singular stem)
orbobom (dative dual masculine stem)
orbobos (dative masculine plural stem)
orbei (locative masculine singular stem)
orbū (instrumental masculine singular stem)
orbobim (dual instrumental masculine stem)
orbūis (instrumental masculine plural stem)

Old Irish: orb


stratos

stratos (masculine nominative singular stem)
stratou (dual masculine nominative stem)
stratoi (masculine nominative plural stem)
strate (masculine singular stem vocative)
stratou (dual masculine stem vocative)
stratūs (masculine plural stem vocative)
stratom (accusative masculine singular stem)
stratou (accusative dual masculine stem)
stratoms (accusative masculine plural stem)
stratī (genitive masculine singular stem)
stratous (dual genitive masculine stem)
stratom (genitive masculine plural stem)
stratūi (dative masculine singular stem)
stratobom (dative dual masculine stem)
stratobos (dative masculine plural stem)
stratei (locative masculine singular stem)
stratū (instrumental masculine singular stem)
stratobim (dual instrumental masculine stem)
stratūis (instrumental masculine plural stem)

Proto-Brythonic: *strad

Middle Breton: strad

Breton: strad

Cornish: stras

Old Welsh: Strat

Middle Welsh: ystrad

Welsh: ystrad

Old Irish: srath

Manx: strah

Irish: srath

desctree

Scottish Gaelic: srath
→ English: strath

From Proto-Indo-European *str̥h₃tós, From Proto-Indo-European *sterh₃- (“to spread, extend, stretch out”). Cognate with Latin strātus, Sanskrit स्तृत (stṛtá) and Ancient Greek στρᾰτός (stratós).


artos

artos (masculine nominative singular stem)
artou (dual masculine nominative stem)
artoi (masculine nominative plural stem)
arte (masculine singular stem vocative)
artou (dual masculine stem vocative)
artūs (masculine plural stem vocative)
artom (accusative masculine singular stem)
artou (accusative dual masculine stem)
artoms (accusative masculine plural stem)
artī (genitive masculine singular stem)
artous (dual genitive masculine stem)
artom (genitive masculine plural stem)
artūi (dative masculine singular stem)
artobom (dative dual masculine stem)
artobos (dative masculine plural stem)
artei (locative masculine singular stem)
artū (instrumental masculine singular stem)
artobim (dual instrumental masculine stem)
artūis (instrumental masculine plural stem)

desctree

Proto-Brythonic: *arθ
Old Breton: ard, arth
Breton: arzh
Cornish: arth
Middle Welsh: arth
Welsh: arth

Old Irish: art (“bear, hero, warrior”)

Gaulish: *artos

→⇒ Latin: Artiō

→⇒ Latin: Artodunum

Noric: 𐌀𐌓𐌕𐌄(𐌁𐌖𐌈𐌆) (Arte(budz))

Basque: hartz

From Proto-Indo-European *h₂ŕ̥tḱos (“bear”).


sentus

sentus (nominative singular)
sentū (dual nominative)
sentowes (nominative plural)
sentu (singular vocative)
sentū (dual vocative)
sentūs (plural vocative)
sentum (accusative singular)
sentū (accusative dual)
sentums (accusative plural)
sentous (genitive singular)
sentous (dual genitive)
sentowom (genitive plural)
sentou (dative singular)
sentubom (dative dual)
sentubos (dative plural)
sentū (instrumental singular)
sentubim (dual instrumental)
sentubis (instrumental plural)

Proto-Brythonic: *hɨnt
Old Breton: hint
Middle Breton: hent
Breton: hent
Middle Cornish: hyns
Cornish: hens
Middle Welsh: hint, hynt
Welsh: hynt

Old Irish: sét
Irish: séad


branos

branos (masculine nominative singular stem)
branou (dual masculine nominative stem)
branoi (masculine nominative plural stem)
brane (masculine singular stem vocative)
branou (dual masculine stem vocative)
branūs (masculine plural stem vocative)
branom (accusative masculine singular stem)
branou (accusative dual masculine stem)
branoms (accusative masculine plural stem)
branī (genitive masculine singular stem)
branous (dual genitive masculine stem)
branom (genitive masculine plural stem)
branūi (dative masculine singular stem)
branobom (dative dual masculine stem)
branobos (dative masculine plural stem)
branei (locative masculine singular stem)
branū (instrumental masculine singular stem)
branobim (dual instrumental masculine stem)
branūis (instrumental masculine plural stem)

Brythonic: *bran
Middle Breton: bran
Breton: bran
Middle Cornish: bran
Cornish: bran
Middle Welsh: bran
Welsh: brân f

Gaulish: Branodūnon (toponymy?)

Primitive Irish: ᚁᚏᚐᚅᚐ (brana)

Old Irish: bran

Irish: bran

Scottish Gaelic: bran

Possibly cognate with Proto-Balto-Slavic *warnás (“raven”). In view of the formal difficulty that a change of *wr- to *br- would be irregular in Celtic, Matasović considers it more likely that this is a loanword from an unknown (substrate?) source.


dubus

dubus (nominative singular)
dubū (dual nominative)
dubowes (nominative plural)
dubu (singular vocative)
dubū (dual vocative)
dubūs (plural vocative)
dubum (accusative singular)
dubū (accusative dual)
dubums (accusative plural)
dubous (genitive singular)
dubous (dual genitive)
dubowom (genitive plural)
dubou (dative singular)
dububom (dative dual)
dububos (dative plural)
dubū (instrumental singular)
dububim (dual instrumental)
dububis (instrumental plural)
dubu (nominative singular)
dubwā (nominative plural)
dubwā (plural vocative)
dubu (accusative singular)
dubwā (accusative plural)

Brythonic: *duβ
Breton: du
Cornish: du
Welsh: du

Old Irish: dub

Irish: dubh

Manx: doo

Scottish Gaelic: dubh

From Proto-Indo-European *dʰewbʰ- (“black”). Cognate with English deaf.


esus

esus (nominative singular)
esū (dual nominative)
esowes (nominative plural)
esu (singular vocative)
esū (dual vocative)
esūs (plural vocative)
esum (accusative singular)
esū (accusative dual)
esums (accusative plural)
esous (genitive singular)
esous (dual genitive)
esowom (genitive plural)
esou (dative singular)
esubom (dative dual)
esubos (dative plural)
esū (instrumental singular)
esubim (dual instrumental)
esubis (instrumental plural)
esu (nominative singular)
eswā (nominative plural)
eswā (plural vocative)
esu (accusative singular)
eswā (accusative plural)


emeti

emū (active first-person present singular)
ememam (active first-person imperfect singular)
iemasū (active first-person future singular)
imam (active first-person preterite singular)
emesi (active present second-person singular)
emetās (active imperfect second-person singular)
iemasesi (active future second-person singular)
ins (active preterite second-person singular)
emeti (active present singular third-person)
emeto (active imperfect singular third-person)
iemaseti (active future singular third-person)
int (active preterite singular third-person)
emomosi (active first-person plural present)
ememo (active first-person imperfect plural)
iemasomosi (active first-person future plural)
imme (active first-person plural preterite)
emetesi (active plural present second-person)
emestē (active imperfect plural second-person)
iemasetesi (active future plural second-person)
inte (active plural preterite second-person)
emonti (active plural present third-person)
emento (active imperfect plural third-person)
iemasonti (active future plural third-person)
imant (active plural preterite third-person)
emasū (active first-person present singular subjunctive)
emasesi (active present second-person singular subjunctive)
eme (active imperative second-person singular)
emaseti (active present singular subjunctive third-person)
emetou (active imperative singular third-person)
emasomosi (active first-person plural present subjunctive)
emomos (active first-person imperative plural)
emasetesi (active plural present second-person subjunctive)
emete (active imperative plural second-person)
emasonti (active plural present subjunctive third-person)
emontou (active imperative plural third-person)
emūr (first-person passive present singular)
iemasūr (first-person future passive singular)
emetar (passive present second-person singular)
iemasetar (future passive second-person singular)
emetor (passive present singular third-person)
iemasetor (future passive singular third-person)
emommor (first-person passive plural present)
iemasommor (first-person future passive plural)
emedwe (passive plural present second-person)
iemasedwe (future passive plural second-person)
emontor (passive plural present third-person)
iemasontor (future passive plural third-person)
emasūr (first-person passive present singular subjunctive)
emasetar (passive present second-person singular subjunctive)
emasetor (passive present singular subjunctive third-person)
emasommor (first-person passive plural present subjunctive)
emasedwe (passive plural present second-person subjunctive)
emasontor (passive plural present subjunctive third-person)

From Proto-Indo-European *h₁em- (“to take”).

con·roíter

*kom-ɸro-im- (t-preterite formation); Old Irish


matis

matis (nominative singular)
matī (dual nominative)
matīs (nominative plural)
mati (singular vocative)
matī (dual vocative)
matīs (plural vocative)
matim (accusative singular)
matī (accusative dual)
matims (accusative plural)
matēs (genitive singular)
matyou (dual genitive)
matyom (genitive plural)
matē (dative singular)
matibom (dative dual)
matibos (dative plural)
matī (instrumental singular)
matibim (dual instrumental)
matibis (instrumental plural)
mati (nominative singular)
matyā (nominative plural)
matyā (plural vocative)
mati (accusative singular)
matyā (accusative plural)
matois (genitive singular)
matois (dual genitive)

Proto-Brythonic: *mad
Middle Breton: mat
Breton: mad
Cornish: mas
Middle Welsh: mad
Welsh: mad

Old Irish: maith, maid
Irish: maith
Manx: mie
Scottish Gaelic: math

From Proto-Indo-European *meh₂tis (“ripe, good”), from *meh₂- (“to ripen, to mature”). Cognate with Latin mānis, mānus (“good”), mātūrus (“mature”), Mātūta (“goddess Dawn”).

inh

math

Proto-Celtic: *matus m (“bear”); Old Irish


trīs

tisres (feminine)
trīs (nominative plural)
trīs (plural vocative)
trims (accusative plural)
triyom (genitive plural)
tribom (dative plural)
tribim (instrumental plural)
tisres (nominative plural)
tisres (plural vocative)
tisrams (accusative plural)
tisrom (genitive plural)
tisribom (dative plural)
tisribim (instrumental plural)
trī (nominative plural)
trī (plural vocative)
trī (accusative plural)

desctree

Proto-Brythonic: *tri m
Old Breton: tri
Middle Breton: tri
Breton: tri
Cornish: tri
Middle Welsh: tri
Welsh: tri

Proto-Brythonic: *teir f
Breton: teir
Cornish: teyr
Welsh: tair

Old Irish: trí, tri
Middle Irish: trí
Irish: trí
Manx: tree
Scottish Gaelic: trì

Gaulish: treis m, tiđres f

Celtiberian: Tiriś

Lusitanian: *trīs

From Proto-Indo-European *tréyes and feminine *tisres.


sextam

Proto-Brythonic: *seiθ

Breton: seizh

Cornish: seyth

Middle Welsh: seith

Welsh: saith

Old Irish: secht
Middle Irish: secht
Irish: seacht
Manx: shiaght
Scottish Gaelic: seachd

Gaulish: sextam

From earlier *seɸtam, from Proto-Indo-European *septḿ̥.


markos

markos (masculine nominative singular stem)
markou (dual masculine nominative stem)
markoi (masculine nominative plural stem)
marke (masculine singular stem vocative)
markou (dual masculine stem vocative)
markūs (masculine plural stem vocative)
markom (accusative masculine singular stem)
markou (accusative dual masculine stem)
markoms (accusative masculine plural stem)
markī (genitive masculine singular stem)
markous (dual genitive masculine stem)
markom (genitive masculine plural stem)
markūi (dative masculine singular stem)
markobom (dative dual masculine stem)
markobos (dative masculine plural stem)
markei (locative masculine singular stem)
markū (instrumental masculine singular stem)
markobim (dual instrumental masculine stem)
markūis (instrumental masculine plural stem)

Brythonic: *marx
Old Breton: marh
Middle Breton: march
Breton: marc'h
Old Cornish: march
Middle Cornish: margh
Cornish: margh
Middle Welsh: march
Welsh: march

Old Irish: marc

Irish: marc

Scottish Gaelic: marc

Galatian: μάρκαν (márkan)

Gaulish: markos

Cognate with Proto-Germanic *marhaz. This is generally reconstructed as being from a Proto-Indo-European *márkos (“horse”), but other theories exist; see that page for further discussion.


-tus

-tus (nominative singular)
-tū (dual nominative)
-towes (nominative plural)
-tu (singular vocative)
-tū (dual vocative)
-tūs (plural vocative)
-tum (accusative singular)
-tū (accusative dual)
-tums (accusative plural)
-tous (genitive singular)
-tous (dual genitive)
-towom (genitive plural)
-tou (dative singular)
-tubom (dative dual)
-tubos (dative plural)
-tū (instrumental singular)
-tubim (dual instrumental)
-tubis (instrumental plural)

Proto-Brythonic: *-d

Welsh: -d

Old Irish: -ad, -ed (slender form); -ud (often with A II verbs)
Irish: -adh
Manx: -ey
Scottish Gaelic: -adh

Gaulish: -tus


gutus

gutus (nominative singular)
gutū (dual nominative)
gutowes (nominative plural)
gutu (singular vocative)
gutū (dual vocative)
gutūs (plural vocative)
gutum (accusative singular)
gutū (accusative dual)
gutums (accusative plural)
gutous (genitive singular)
gutous (dual genitive)
gutowom (genitive plural)
gutou (dative singular)
gutubom (dative dual)
gutubos (dative plural)
gutū (instrumental singular)
gutubim (dual instrumental)
gutubis (instrumental plural)

Old Irish: guth
Irish: guth
Manx: goo
Scottish Gaelic: guth

Gaulish: *gutus

⇒ Gaulish: *gutuatir (+ *atir (“father”))

→ Latin: gutuater (“priest”)

From Proto-Indo-European *ǵʰuH-tu-s (“to call on, invoke”), from *ǵʰewH- (“to call on, invoke”).


anman

anman (nominative singular)
anmane? (dual nominative)
anmana (nominative plural)
anman (singular vocative)
anmane? (dual vocative)
anmana (plural vocative)
anman (accusative singular)
anmane? (accusative dual)
anmana (accusative plural)
anmens (genitive singular)
anmenous? (dual genitive)
anmenom (genitive plural)
anmenē (dative singular)
anmembom (dative dual)
anmembos (dative plural)
anmen (locative singular)
anmeni (locative singular)
anmenē (instrumental singular)
anmembim (dual instrumental)
anmembis (instrumental plural)

desctree

Proto-Brythonic: *anw
Old Breton: anu
Middle Breton: hanu, anff
Breton: anv
Cornish: enw, hanow
Old Welsh: anu
Middle Welsh: enw
Welsh: enw

Primitive Irish: ᚐᚅᚋ (anm)
Old Irish: ainmm, ainm
Middle Irish: ainm
Irish: ainm
Manx: ennym
Scottish Gaelic: ainm

Gaulish: anuana


tegos

tegos (neuter nominative singular)
tegese? (dual neuter nominative)
tegesa (neuter nominative plural)
tegos (neuter singular vocative)
tegese? (dual neuter vocative)
tegesa (neuter plural vocative)
tegos (accusative neuter singular)
tegese? (accusative dual neuter)
tegesa (accusative neuter plural)
tegesos (genitive neuter singular)
tegesous? (dual genitive neuter)
tegesom (genitive neuter plural)
tegesē (dative neuter singular)
tegesbom (dative dual neuter)
tegesbos (dative neuter plural)
tegesi (locative neuter singular)
tegesē (instrumental neuter singular)
tegesbim (dual instrumental neuter)
tegesbis (instrumental neuter plural)

Proto-Brythonic: *tɨɣ
Old Breton: tig
Breton: ti
Old Cornish: ti
Cornish: chi, chy
Middle Welsh: ty
Welsh: tŷ

Old Irish: tech, teg
Irish: teach
Manx: çhagh, thie
Scottish Gaelic: taigh
⇒ Middle Irish: tech midchuarta
⇒ Middle Irish: tech n-óil
⇒ Middle Irish: tech talman
⇒ Classical Gaelic: teach othuir

Celtiberian:

→ Galician: tei (obsolete)

From Proto-Indo-European *(s)teg- (“cover, roof”).

der

Old Irish: coitchenn

*kom-teges-nos (“sharing the same house > common”)

coitchennIrish: coiteannScottish Gaelic: coitcheannManx: cadjin


sukkos

sukkos (masculine nominative singular stem)
sukkou (dual masculine nominative stem)
sukkoi (masculine nominative plural stem)
sukke (masculine singular stem vocative)
sukkou (dual masculine stem vocative)
sukkūs (masculine plural stem vocative)
sukkom (accusative masculine singular stem)
sukkou (accusative dual masculine stem)
sukkoms (accusative masculine plural stem)
sukkī (genitive masculine singular stem)
sukkous (dual genitive masculine stem)
sukkom (genitive masculine plural stem)
sukkūi (dative masculine singular stem)
sukkobom (dative dual masculine stem)
sukkobos (dative masculine plural stem)
sukkei (locative masculine singular stem)
sukkū (instrumental masculine singular stem)
sukkobim (dual instrumental masculine stem)
sukkūis (instrumental masculine plural stem)

desctree

Proto-Brythonic: *hux (“pig”)
Old Breton: hoch
Middle Breton: hoc’h, houc’h
Breton: soc’h
Old Cornish: hoch
Cornish: hogh
Welsh: hwch
→? Old English: hogg (“hog”) (see there for further descendants)

Old Breton: hoch

Middle Breton: hoc’h, houc’h

Breton: hoc’h

Old Cornish: hoch

Cornish: hogh

Welsh: hwch

Middle Irish: socc (“snout; plowshare”)

Irish: soc

→ Vulgar Latin: *soccus (“plowshare”)

Old French: soc

Middle French: soc

French: soc

⇒ Old French: soket
→ Middle English: socket, soket
English: socket

→? Proto-Brythonic: *sux (“plowshare”)
Middle Breton: souch
Breton: soc’h
Welsh: swch

Ultimately from Proto-Indo-European *súH-s (“pig”), possibly through:
* earlier *sukos, geminated under the influence of *mokkus (“pig”), from Proto-Indo-European *su(H)-k-ó-s (compare the ungeminated cognate Proto-West Germanic *sugu (“female pig”) < *su(H)-ké-h₂), from *súH-s + *-k- (velar extension) + *-ós with unexplained loss of the laryngeal or pretonic shortening (the disputed "Dybo's law");
* Proto-Indo-European *su-k-ko-s, from *súH-s + *-k- (intrusive velar) + *-kos;
* earlier *suɸkus, from Proto-Indo-European *suH-pḱu-s, from *súH-s + *péḱu (“livestock”).
For a parallel sense development, compare cognates in Ancient Greek ὗς (hûs, “pig”) and ὕνις (húnis, “plowshare”).


windos

windos (nominative singular)
windou (dual nominative)
windoi (nominative plural)
winde (singular vocative)
windou (dual vocative)
windoi (plural vocative)
windom (accusative singular)
windou (accusative dual)
windoms (accusative plural)
windī (genitive singular)
windous (dual genitive)
windom (genitive plural)
windūi (dative singular)
windobom (dative dual)
windobos (dative plural)
windū (instrumental singular)
windobim (dual instrumental)
windobis (instrumental plural)
windā (nominative singular)
windai (dual nominative)
windās (nominative plural)
windā (singular vocative)
windai (dual vocative)
windās (plural vocative)
windam (accusative singular)
windai (accusative dual)
windams (accusative plural)
windās (genitive singular)
windai (dative singular)
windābom (dative dual)
windābos (dative plural)
windābim (dual instrumental)
windābis (instrumental plural)
windom (nominative singular)
windā (nominative plural)
windom (singular vocative)
windā (plural vocative)
windā (accusative plural)

desctree

Proto-Brythonic: *gwɨnn
Old Breton: guinn
Middle Breton: guinn
Breton: gwenn
Old Cornish: guyn
Cornish: gwen
Middle Welsh: gwynn
Welsh: gwyn

Old Irish: finn, find
Irish: fionn
Manx: fynn
Scottish Gaelic: fionn

Gaulish: *windos

Perhaps from Proto-Indo-European *windo-, nasal infix of Proto-Indo-European *weyd- (“to see”). However, Matasovic refrains from assigning any etymology, only giving French vandoise (“dace, cub”) (itself perhaps a Gaulish borrowing) as a cognate.


eti

Gaulish: eti, t-ic

n-g

Old Irish: formed absolute and deuterotonic verb forms

Proto-Brythonic: formed absolute verbal forms

From Proto-Indo-European *éti. The particle *eti is currently the mainstream explanation for the difference between the absolute and conjunct forms in Old Irish and Old Welsh. However, other explanations of the absolute and conjunct have been proposed:
* Cowgill and Kortlandt reconstruct this particle as *es and derive it from Proto-Indo-European *h₁ésti (“is”).
* Roma and Budassi reconstruct subject pronouns instead of *eti as the clitic(s) that differentiated absolute and conjunct forms. They believe that their reconstruction also has the advantage of explaining the subject pronouns (like mé, tú, é, etc.) not occurring as subjects of inflected verbs in Old Irish.
* McCone opposes all forms of the “particle hypothesis” and claims the postulated sentence particle faces more difficulties than it solves and requires numerous dubious ad hoc phonological assumptions. Instead he postulates the generalization of topicalized clause-initial verbs whose final -i was shielded by other enclitics if present, and then homogenization of forms with and without following enclitics in this position.