-DÍÍN

From Proto-Athabaskan *denʸ (“light shines”). Always occurs with di- thematic "fire" in associated verb bases.
The root -díín is irregular, since *-dį́ would be expected. -díín is invariable in shape (i.e., there are no other forms for different aspects or tenses), although a distinction between imperfective and perfective could be made. According to Young (1992), bases containing prefix yíní- (“directed at”) have neuter imperfective stems, while the rest have neuter perfective.


-CHʼIIZH

From Proto-Athabaskan *čʼʷičʼʷ (“to be rough, chapped”).
Cognate root found in Ahtna atsʼiis (“it is chapped”), Chipewyan dɛts’iz (“it is rough and hard”).
Related to -CHʼÍÍZH (“make a dry rustling sound”).


-TʼEʼ

From Proto-Athabaskan *tʼe (“to be thus”).
Cognate root found in Ahtna ntʼae (“it is”), neltʼeʼ (“there are many”), Chipewyan bénɛłtʼɛ (“you're like him”).

tʼááłah diltʼéhé
tʼááłah diltʼéhé#Navajo

to be
 2. Various meanings depending on thematic prefix


-TʼEʼ

From Proto-Athabaskan *tʼə̓qʼ (“animate or stick-like object moves”).
Cognate root found in Ahtna tiiłtʼak (“I threw it away (a stick)”), Koyukon kʼəltʼəx (“to hit something with a stick”).
Also occurs in Navajo along with hi-seriative in a motion theme related to hopping (literally, to “throw” oneself successively).

cog

to propel a slender stiff object (SSO) or animate object (AnO)


-ʼĮĮD

The future and optative modes use expletive stems from the root -YAA.
Verb bases with thematized d-classifier are often re-analyzed as ∅-classifier stems (*d-ʼįįh = *∅-tʼįįh), as evidenced by the perfective forms using ∅/ł-class subject prefixes rather than the d/l-class ones.

wealthy (root -TʼĮĮD?)
(d- thematized) to be wealthy.


-GHĄ́Ą́ʼ

From Proto-Athabaskan *ɣ̇an (“to make plural objects, to kill plural objects”).
Cognate root found in Ahtna esghaan (“I am killing them”).


-GHĄ́Ą́ʼ

From Proto-Athabaskan *ɣ̇ʊn (“to snore, to growl”).
Cognate root found in Ahtna yutnełghan (“he growled at him”).


-CHĮ́

collect (maybe original meaning?)
(ł-) to collect money, donations.

collect (maybe original meaning?)
to collect money, donations.

crowd (maybe a different root?)
(l-) to gather, to form a crowd.

crowd (maybe a different root?)
to gather, to form a crowd.

(l-) (uncertain derivation) to have a nightmare.


-ZHIIZH

From Proto-Athabaskan *džičʼ (“to dance”).
Cognate root found in Ahtna ʼscʼaldziitsʼ (“we danced”).
Occurs in Navajo in a number of disparate meanings, of uncertain derivation.

to poke, to jab, to stick
 2. to rise, to increase, to reach a level
 3. to dance
 4. time passes


-DLĄ́Ą́ʼ

Probably from Proto-Athabaskan *də-nanʸ (“to drink”).


-LĮ́Į́ʼ

Closely related to -LǪ́.
This root seems to only take si-Perfectives in all verb bases.

(ho-) to come into being, to come up, to be born.


-GHAAZH

From Proto-Athabaskan *ɣ̇ʷa̓ž ~ *ɣ̇ʊš (“to make a bubbling noise”).
Occurs in Navajo in bases of disparate meanings related to “bubbling”, “shouting” and “sleeping”, probably originating in distinct roots that merged in shape.
These meanings are found in parts in other Athabaskan languages too:
* in Ahtna tnelghots (“it is boiling”), telghaas (“fish started swimming (bubbling?)”), delghos (“they are shouting”);
* in Koyukon nilɣos (“melted”), dəlɣʊs (“they are making noise”);
* in Chipewyan nɛ́sɣáz (“my face swole up”), níłxáz (“I boiled it”), dɛlɣus (“it barks”), ɛ’ɛłxus (“he snored”);
* in Mattole ’iłgwóxw (“you snore, are sound asleep”).

*ɣ̇ʷa̓ž ~ *ɣ̇ʊš

cog

to bubble, to boil
 2. to shout
 3. to sleep


-DIZ

(∅- or ł- ) to twist it, to spin it, to wrap it, to bandage.

(l- reflexive) to roll dirt off of oneself.

(d- or l- passive) to be tangled, snarled, to wind around.

twist
to be tangled, snarled, to wind around.

(ł-) to clean one's gun (by twisting the cleaning patch back out).

(ł-) to catch a rabbit (by twisting it out of its hole), to go rabbit hunting.

(di- "legs" + l- causative-reflexive) to move with swift short steps (as in throwing a javelin).


-TSʼÓÓZÍ

Cognate found in Chipewyan chʼude (“narrow”).
The stem of this root has variable shape, such as -tsʼóóz, -tsʼózí or -tsʼósí. Generally absolutive and comparative aspectual bases are not clearly distinguished.


-DLOʼ

From Proto-Athabaskan *də-ləqʼʷ > *dlʊ̓q’ (“to laugh”).
Cognate root found in Ahtna dloqʼ (“laughter”), Carrier dlo, Chipewyan dloɣ. See also Navajo dloh (“laughter”).


-YĄ́Ą́ʼ

Probably from Proto-Athabaskan *hanʸ (“to eat”).
The first consonant fuses with the preceding consonant from classifiers or subject prefixes, resulting in various alternations : YĄ́Ą́ʼ, DĄ́Ą́ʼ, SĄ́Ą́ʼ, SHĄ́Ą́ʼ, ZĄ́Ą́ʼ.
Compare also Navajo dą́ą́ʼ (“food, corn”).


-CHĄĄʼ

From Proto-Athabaskan *čʷanʼ ~ *čʷənʼ (“to defecate”).
Cognate root found in Ahtna tsaanʼ (“excrement”), estsenʼ (“I defecate”), Gwich'in tryąʼ (“excrement”).

*čʷanʼ ~ *čʷənʼ

to defecate, to cover with filth, to masturbate


-CHĄ́Ą́ʼ

From Proto-Athabaskan *ča(nʸ) ~ *čʷa(nʸ) (“to become exhausted”).
Cognate root found in Ahtna nininitsaan (“he came exhausted”), Chipewyan nínįtsąʼ (“he is tired”).
Occurs in Navajo in bases related to “fleeing” and “running”.


-GHÁÁZH

Closely related to root -GHAZH, "to bite".


-DĮĮD

(ʼá- + ∅- thematic) to disappear, to become non-existent, to die.

(ʼá- + ł- causative) to get rid of, to destroy.

(ł- thematic) (to stand it, found only in the negative) to be bored, to dislike, to despise.


-YAA

From Proto-Athabaskan *haɢ (“to do, to make”) in the perfective, from Proto-Athabaskan *ni (“to do, to make”) in the imperfective, future and optative, and from Proto-Athabaskan *enˀ (“to do, to make”) in the iterative (see -ʼĮĮD).
The stem initial undergoes a number of special alternations in presence of ł-classsifier and d-effect (see Stem Set section below).

áánííł áánííł#Navajo

to do, to make, to happen
 2. various meanings depending on thematic prefix


-NIIʼ

From Proto-Athabaskan *ni̓gʸ, from pre-Proto-Athabaskan *niʼg, a root with many disparate meanings, perhaps resulting in the merger of originally distinct roots.
A first meaning involves action with the hand (squeeze, touch). Another meaning relates to the passing of an invisible or hazy entity, as an epidemic, a cold wave, a fad, a swarm, and also relates to pain, ache. A last meaning relates to mental actions as to know, to be aware, to remember.
-NIIʼ shares many stems with the roots -NÍÍʼ, -NIID, -NÍÍD, -NIʼ, -NÍ, -NIH, -NIIH ~ -LĮH and -NEʼ, each of these being themselves a conflation of several originally distinct roots with at times overlapping meanings, which makes their actual identification often speculative.
Maybe as a consequence, the themes in this root often do not behave as neatly as with other roots (classifiers, aspect, conjugations may follow irregular alternations).

to act with the hand
 2. to hurt, to be painful
 3. a wave passes or spreads (epidemic, a heat wave, a crowd, a swarm, a fad)
 4. to know, to be aware


-DZÍÍʼ

breathe
(hadi-) to vow, to promise, to swear.

(∅) to remain, to survive, to be left over.

remain
to remain, to survive, to be left over.


-JOOL

Probably from Proto-Athabaskan *džəɣ̇ʷətɬ’ (“ball”).

NCM moves
(∅) NCM moves freely, NCM is at rest.

NCM moves
NCM moves freely, NCM is at rest.

(ł) to handle or propel NCM, to keep NCM at rest.

Classificatory root for non-compact matter as hair, a wig, or hay, and by extension, smoke, steam, dust, or a stench. The base ∅-classifier theme is intransitive and applies to NCM's independent motion or state, while the ł-classifier theme is transitive-causative and applies to the handling (carry, bring, give...) and propelling (throw, toss, drop,...) of NCM.

to be ball-shaped, globular, round, plump.

to huddle, to draw oneself together, to bend, to sneak.


-TʼIʼ

From Proto-Athabaskan *t’əkʸ’ (“to be stretched, taut”).
Cognate root found in Ahtna nic’et’ (“it is stretched”) (with metathesis), Gwich'in niint’aii (“it is extended”), Chipewyan nįtʼiy (“it is tight”).
Describes the extension into a line of a slender flexible object as a rope, a wire, and by extension, a fence, a road, rails or a line of people.


-TʼIʼ

Uncertain. Cognate not found in other Athabaskan languages.
There is some variation in the actual stems of the imperfective and perfective modes, both -tʼiʼ and -tʼi being reported by various sources. Perhaps an influence of -TʼIʼabove.

to stagger, to wobble
 2. to go swiftly, to streak
 3. to beat hard, to pound (the heart of a frightened person)


-MÁÁZ

The root -MÁÁZ (“globular, spherical, ball-like shape”) is cognate with the root -BĄ́Ą́Z (“hooplike, ringlike shape”), both possibly originating from Proto-Athabaskan *wątsʼ (“roll”).


-CHʼĄ́Ą́L

to move suspended by means of a handle or cord


-YIZ

Probably from Proto-Athabaskan *ɣ̇əz (“to turn, to whirl”).


-BAAL

Probably from Proto-Athabaskan *wa̓l (“to hang”).


-KID

Probably from Proto-Athabaskan *qə̓t’ (“to slip, to slide”).


-TSʼEEʼ

Probably from Proto-Athabaskan *tsʼeq’ (“to lick”).


-GAII

Probably from Proto-Athabaskan *ɢɑɣ ~ *ɢɑy (“to be white”). Cognate root found in Ahtna lggay, Gwich'in daagąįį.
The extended meanings of “to be hot” and “to hurt” seem to be specific to Navajo among Athabascan languages.


-CHIIʼ

Probably from Proto-Athabaskan *čig (“to be red ochre”).
Often occurs with intensive infix -x- indicating a deeper, browner color tone.


-TSOII

Probably from Proto-Athabaskan *tsu̓ɢ (“to be yellow, tan”). Also occurs with intensive infix -x- indicating a darker color tone as orange.


-ZHĮ́Į́ʼ

Probably from Proto-Athabaskan *žənʸ (“to be dark, black”).
Cognate root found in Ahtna delzen (“dark colored”), Gwich'in azhrąįį.


-TŁʼIIZH

From Proto-Athabaskan *tł’əɣəš (“eel, snake”). See also the related noun tłʼiish (“snake”).


-TŁIIZH

Cognate root found in Koyukon tłɨs (“crushed, distorted”) and Tsuut'ina dlish (“spotted”).

dark brown, bruised, stained or spotted with brown


-YÉÉL

Probably from Proto-Athabaskan *ɣ̇etɬ’ (“to become dark; to be quiet, calm”).
Cognate root found in Ahtna naghighaetlʼ (“it got dark”), dezghaetlʼ (“it is calm”). Compare also Navajo hił (“darkness”).


-CHOZH

From Proto-Athabaskan *ču̓ž (“to shatter”).


-ʼAAL

From Proto-Athabaskan *ʼa̓tɬʼ (“to chew, to bite”).
Cognate root found in Ahtna cʼeʼaał (“he is chewing something”), yizʼał (“he bit it once”), Gwich'in iiʼàal (“I ate it”), Chipewyan ɣɛsʼaíł (“Iʼm chewing it”)
Found in Navajo in bases related to the eating of hard or crispy food like peanuts, candy, celery, and bacon.


-DÉÉL

From Proto-Athabaskan *detɬʼ (“plural or rope-like subject falls or moves abruptly”).
Found in a wide range of extended meanings across all Athabaskan languages including Navajo, with potentially convergence in shape with other roots (see below Proto-Athabaskan *dətɬʼ “to jolt”), making the analyzis quite difficult.
Cognate root found in Ahtna ∅+daetlʼ (“plural S go, fly”), ałdaetlʼ (“I threw them, moved them quickly”), niłdełdeł (“he struck them together”), yaldaetlʼ (“he ate them”), Gwich'in kʼeegiidàl (“they arrived”), naljil (“I ate them”).
The Navajo root describes the movement of a slender flexible object (as a rope, a chain, a wire,...), of objects coming in pairs (as gloves, shoes, scissors,...), or of a group of animate objects (as a band, a tribe, a herd). Extended meanings include the eating of plural objects (as berries), the slamming of an object (like a rope but not exclusively) against another one, and the conception of a baby or egg.

inh

SFO moves or falls (a rope, a pair of shoes, a tribe)
 2. to eat plural objects


-DÉÉL

From Proto-Athabaskan *də̓tɬʼ (“to jolt”). Maybe related to -DÉÉL above from Proto-Athabaskan *detɬʼ, with its extended meaning related to “hitting”, “striking” or “slamming”.
Cognate root found in Koyukon əłdəł (“he shook, quivered”), Carrier usdił (“to be nervous”), Gwich'in gwaahdàl (“it is trembling”), Chipewyan dɛldɛ́l (“(teeth) are rattling”).


-MAL

Root not found in other Athabaskan languages. Maybe related to mąʼii (“coyote”).


-DLOOZH

From Proto-Athabaskan *dlu̓ž (“quadruped trots”). Occurs only in Southern Athabaskan languages.

inh

to go on all four, to creep, to trot (a horse)


-ʼÉÉL

From Proto-Athabaskan *’etɬʼ ~ *’ʷətɬ’ (“plural subjects float or swim”).
Occurs in a very productive motion theme related to floating or sailing, but also occurs in a couple of unproductive bases related to the action of water (flush, sift, sweat, dissolve), and in a neuter theme (to droop or hang down).
Cognate root found in Ahtna ilʼaetlʼ (“they arrived swimming”), tezʼaetlʼ (“(a dam) washed out”), tełʼaetlʼ (“he hung it up”), with similar extended meanings.

*’etɬʼ ~ *’ʷətɬ’


-ʼĄ́

From Proto-Athabaskan *ʼa (“to handle compact object”), with nasalized perfective *ʼa-nʸ.
One of the most productive root occurring in all Athabaskan languages, in a wide range of themes and specialized meanings.
Cognate root found in Ahtna zʼaan (“it is in position”), yiniʼaan (“he arrived carrying it”), diniʼaan (“he brought the news”), nikuniʼaan (“it is planned”), [Term?] (“sun moves”), with similar extended meanings.


-TSʼǪ́Ǫ́D

From Proto-Athabaskan *kʸʼə̓tʼ (“to stretch”). Maybe cognate with -TSʼID (“tough, sinewy”).
Cognate root found in Ahtna nicʼetʼ (“it is stretched out”).


-BĄ́Ą́Z

The root -BĄ́Ą́Z (“hooplike, ringlike shape”) is cognate with the root -MÁÁZ (“globular, spherical, ball-like shape”), both possibly originating from Proto-Athabaskan *wątsʼ (“roll”).
Cognate root found in Ahtna ghalbas (“it is rolling along”), nelbaatsʼ (“it is spherical”).


-JÉÉʼ

From Proto-Athabaskan *džeq’, a root with multiple meanings throughout the Athabaskan languages, related to sticky matter, and to the handling or movement of a liquid, viscous or granular mass or of a plurality of objects.
Compare Carrier dzeh (“gum, resin”), esdzeh (“to glue, to weld”), nenesdzeh (“to put liquid, grease”), nedisdzeh (“to put hay or moss”), Mattole dehdidžeɣ (“they float”), Koyukon nitoxadaniłdzaq (“a lot of driftwood has accumulated in the water”), Dena'ina -džax (“pl. S run”), nə-džax (“pl. S fly”).
Occurs in Navajo in bases related to the parallel positioning of plural elongated subjects (sticks, ropes or animated), to the running of plural subjects (see also yideeł and yilé for a similar connection between the movement of rope-like objects (SFO) and running), and to the greasing or sticking of objects.

cog

plural S lie, recline
 2. plural S run
 3. to stick, to cause to adhere, to smear, to grease


-NAʼ

From Proto-Athabaskan *na (“to live, to move, to work”). Related to -NÁÁʼ (“to move”) and to -NÁÁD (“to last”). Maybe originating in several distinct roots.
Cognate root found in Ahtna ghetnaa (“he is working”), Chipewyan ɣɛna (“he is alive”), Carrier nelnaʼ (“to be slow, sluggish”).

inh

to live
 2. to last, to endure (supplies)
 3. to act slowly


-NAʼ

From Proto-Athabaskan *nə̓q’ (“to swallow”).
Cognate root found in Ahtna itełnaʼ (“he swallowed it”).


-NAʼ

From Proto-Athabaskan *nəɢ, with a wide semantic range including “a flat flexible object (as sheets) moves”, “to last, to endure, to become tired”.
Compare with -NAʼ above for the meaning "to last, to endure".
Cognate root found in Ahtna naghinak (“(a blanket) fell down”), łdaniniłnak (“it lasted a long time”), taatnak (“he is tired”).

cog

FFO moves, falls (blanket, surface of water)
 2. to crawl, to creep


-TʼAʼ

From Proto-Athabaskan *tʼɑɢ (“to fly”).
Cognate root found in Ahtna nitʼak (“it arrived flying”), Gwich'in naałtʼak (“I flew a plane”).


-TʼÓÓD

Perhaps from Proto-Athabaskan *tʼučʼ (“to peel, to strip”), with an irregular coda evolution (*-čʼ> -sh would be expected). See also -TʼOD (“arrow sticks”) for a similar issue.
Compare Ahtna idghiltʼuutsʼ (“he peels it”), Carrier əst’us (“to strip”), hanəzt’ûz (“to be bald”), with meanings identical to the ones found in Navajo.

inh

to tear, to peel, to wear out
 2. to wipe


-TʼOD

Perhaps from Proto-Athabaskan *tʼʊɢ (“to shoot an arrow”), with an irregular coda evolution (*-g> -ʼ or -h would be expected). The original velar resurfaces in béésh astʼogii (“flint arrowhead”). See -TʼOH for the regularly derived root.
Alternatively, from Proto-Athabaskan *tʼut’ (“to suck”). Compare Koyukon utʼʊtʼ (“it sticks by suction, (fabric) sticks to the needle”). See -TʼÓÓD for the regularly derived root.


-TÁÁL

Probably identical to the above root. Occurs in Southern Athabaskan in bases related to singing or holding a ceremony.
Compare Ahtna deltatl’ (“make a speech”), Lower Tanana deltutł (“he is talking loudly”), Carrier dəztəl (“to shout”), themselves extension of the bursting / explosion meaning above.


-WOD

From Proto-Athabaskan *ɣ̇ʊ̓t’ (“to be bent, curved”). Occurs also in a secondary meaning related to wriggling, jiggling, and by extension, in some Athabaskan languages including Navajo, to being agile and running.
Cognate root found in Ahtna dezghotʼ (“it is bent”), Carrier nəlɣwət (“to wriggle”), nəsɣwət (“to be agile, rapid”).
Occurs in Navajo in two additional extended meanings related to limping and to rocking. The “rock” theme uses a different momentaneous stem set, and might be a different root altogether.

inh

to bend, to flex, to disjoint; to limp
 2. to rock
 3. to run


-TŁIZH

Cognate root not found outside of Southern Athabaskan.


-GOʼ

From Proto-Athabaskan *ɢʊ̓k’ (“to bump into, to rush”).

to fall (animate), to rush (stream), to billow (fog)
 2. to tackle, to butt, to collide; (tr.) to bang O, to hit O


-ZĮĮD

From Proto-Athabaskan *zən (“to think”). Relates to the mind.
Cognate root found in Ahtna nizen (“he thinks”), Chipewyan yɛnɛsθən (“I think”), Gwich'in yiyindhan (“he wants it”).


-DO

From Proto-Athabaskan *dʊɣ̇ (“gas moves”).
Describes the movement of gas (air, cloud, smoke) in motion themes and the bursting of gas containers (as a sack of air, a tyre) in successive themes.
Cognate root found in Ahtna kekuldogh (“area becomes foggy”), ldogh (“it cracked”).

to float in the air (smoke, cloud, balloon)


-TŁʼÁ

From Proto-Athabaskan *tłʼa ~ *tłʼe (“herd moves”).
Cognate root found in Ahtna teltłʼaa (“a herd started moving”), Chipewyan ɛltłʼɛł (“it (a caribou) is trotting”).


-JID

Derivation uncertain. This root is not found outside of Navajo.


-KĘ́Ę́Z

From Proto-Athabaskan *q(w)eːtsʼ (“stick-like or heavy object falls”).
Cognate root found in Ahtna naghilkaetsʼ (“(knife, box) fell down”), Chipewyan -kéth (“long object drops”).
The nasal vowel, found only in Navajo, is unexplained. See also -KÉÉZ where some confusion has arisen.


-KÉÉZ

From Proto-Athabaskan *qʊs-x (“to cough”).
Cognate root found in Ahtna delkos (“he is coughing”), Carrier dəlkwəs (“he coughs”).
Occurs in Southern Athabaskan along with tsí-thematic in bases related to thinking. This meaning is probably rather related to the non-nasalized form of -KĘ́Ę́Z (in which the nazalization is non-etymological).

to cough
 2. to think, to ponder, to decide


-ZIIL

From Proto-Athabaskan *zəl (“to be hot”).
Cognate root found in Ahtna ʼiziił (“it got warm”), Carrier hodinzil (“weather is warm”).


-KʼAAZ

From Proto-Athabaskan *q’ɑ̓ts’ (“to be cold”).
Cognate root found in Ahtna nezkʼatsʼ (“it is cold”), Carrier sək’əz (“to be cold”), Chipewyan huk’að (“cold weather”).


-ZO

From Proto-Athabaskan *zʊɣ̇ (“to scrape”).
Cognate root found in Ahtna ighizogh (“he scraped it”), Carrier təszoh (“to rake it”).
In Southern Athabaskan, the root evolved to mean “to mark”, “to draw a line or a border”. In Navajo, it is also found in bases related to the four operations.

to mark, to draw, to write
 2. to add, to subtract, to multiply


-TŁÉÉʼ

From Proto-Athabaskan *tłeqʼʷ, classificatory root for mushy or decrepit objects (as mud, butter, a rotten rag), or animate object sharing such characteristics (as a frog, a drunken person).
Cognate root found in Ahtna ghitlaeʼ (“he handed (some mud)”), nałtloʼ (“it became wet”), Gwich'in naałtłik (“I threw it (a rotten cloth) down”).
Also occurs in Navajo along with hi-seriative in a motion theme describing the hopping of a frog (literally, a mushy object throwing itself successively).

cog

to handle or propelmushy matter (as butter, mud)
 2. to be wet


-NISH

From Proto-Athabaskan *nəš-x (“to move quickly”).
Cognate root found in Chipewyan násnís (“I move quickly”), Northern Tutchone naɣadəlniš (“he is working”).


-DZĮ́Į́Z

From Proto-Athabaskan *huˑs (“to stretch”), from Pre-Proto-Athabaskan *həwəs. Cognate with -LÓÓZ (“to lead”) and -ZǪ́Ǫ́Z (“to pull”).


-LÓÓZ

From Proto-Athabaskan *lus (“to drag, usually with a rope”), from Pre-Proto-Athabaskan *ł-həwəs. Cognate with -DZĮ́Į́Z (“to drag”) and -ZǪ́Ǫ́Z (“to pull, to tear”).
Cognate root found in Ahtna daluus (“he is dragging it”), Koyukon yolułtł (“he is dragging it along”).


-ʼEEZH

From Proto-Athabaskan *ʼe̓ž (“to string fish or beads”).
Cognate root found in Ahtna *inezʼaes (“he strung them”).
Evolved in Navajo to mean “lead 2+ objects”, in contrast with -LÓÓZ, “lead a single object”.

inh

to lead plural object
 2. to stringbeads


-TSOOZ

From Proto-Athabaskan *kʸu̓z, classificatory root for flat flexible objects, as fabric, skins or paper.
Cognate root found in Koyukon yitłkuł (“he has it (a blanket) there”), Carrier tətšus (“to carry it off (as sheets)”).


-TĄ́

From Proto-Athabaskan *tan ~ *tən (“to handle stick-like objects or vessels”), probably one of the most polysemous root across all Athabascan languages.
Cognate root found in Ahtna deztaan (“(elongated object) is in position”), datiił (“he is counting”),
natadghitaan (“water drips down”),
hwghitaʼ (“it stops”),
tinitaan (“there is a trail”),
łtaan (“(enclosed object) is in position”), dełtaan (“(body of water) is in position”), sa dinhwtniłten (“explain to me!”), titahdiniłtaan (“they rushed off in a group”), l+taan (“animate rests”), among many other meanings in the sole Ahtna language.
Occurs in Navajo as momentaneous perfective -TĄ́ or -TĄ́Ą́ʼ, in themes related to the handling of stick-like objects (SSO), to raining, to teaching, to the galloping of a horse, and also acts as the suppletive neuter stem of -BIN (plural S sit).

cog

to handle a slender stiff object
 2. to rain
 3. to teach; to understand, to guess
 4. plural S sit
 5. to gallop


-DǪǪD

From Proto-Athabaskan *dəmʼ (“to become taut”). Maybe cognate with -DON (“to explode”).
Cognate root found in Ahtna nidonʼ (“it is taut”), nełdonʼ (“he jerks it”).


-DON

From Proto-Athabaskan *dəmʼ (“to become taut, full to burst”). Cognate with -DǪǪD (“to straighten up”).

to blast, to explode, to shoot, to fire a gun


-TSEII

From Proto-Athabaskan *tsaˑʼy (“to be dry”). Cognate root found in Ahtna naghaltsaay’ (“they dried up”).
Also spelt as -TSAII.


-TSAII

From Proto-Athabaskan *tsaˑʼy (“to be dry”).


-GAN

From Proto-Athabaskan *ɢa̓nʸ (“to be dry”).
Cognate root found in Ahtna zggan (“it is dried”). See also Navajo asgąʼ (“dried remains”).


-KWI

From Proto-Athabaskan *qʊɣʸ (“to vomit”).
Cognate root found in Ahtna natkoy (“he is vomiting”).


-TŁʼIS

From Proto-Athabaskan *tł’əts’ (“to be hard, solid”).
Cognate root found in Ahtna ʼitlʼiitsʼ (“it hardens, coagulates”).


-TŁʼÍÍD

From Proto-Athabaskan *tł’it’ (“liquid or granular matter moves or splashes; to fart”).
Cognate root found in Ahtna naghitlʼiitʼ (“(water, sand) fell down”), ztlʼiitʼ (“it farted”).
Also occur in Navajo with the meaning “to limber up, to rest up”, of uncertain derivation.

cog

to throw, to toss plural objects
 2. to spurt, to fart
 3. to recuperate, to rest up, to limber up


-TSʼǪ́Ǫ́Z

From Proto-Athabaskan *ts’ųts’ (“to suck, to kiss”).
Cognate root found in Ahtna yiztsʼos (“he is sucking it once”).


-ZĄ́Ą́ʼ

From Proto-Athabaskan *zan (“to beat wife or spouse”).

inh

to beat one's wife, to have a violent domestic quarrel


-ZHIZH

From Proto-Athabaskan *žəž (“to sip hot liquid”).
Cognate root found in Ahtna izes (“drink (tea)”), Carrier əszəz (“drink soup with a spoon”).


-YEʼ

From Proto-Athabaskan *ɣe (“to call a name”).


-CHA

From Proto-Athabaskan *čʷe̓ɣ (“to cry”).
Cognate root found in Ahtna tsagh (“he is crying”).


-CHʼĄĄʼ

Cognate root not found in other Athabaskan languages.

to decorate, to draw, to paint; to trick


-DLÉÉZH

From Proto-Athabaskan *łe̓dž (“to plaster with mud”). Cognate with łeezh (“soil, dirt, ashes”), dleesh (“white clay”).


-BÉÉZH

From Proto-Athabaskan *wədž (“to spread, to stretch”). Cognate with -BIZH (“to braid”).

to lie scattered
 2. to be dirty with adhering matter


-ZHIʼ

From Proto-Athabaskan *ži (“to name it”).
Cognate root found in Ahtna yuzii (“he is calling him”).


-DZIL

From Proto-Athabaskan *dzəl (“to be solid, firm, thick”). Compare also Navajo dziil (“strength”) and dził (“mountain”).

to make an effort, to strain
 2. to be strong, to firm


-GEED

From Proto-Athabaskan *ɢed (“to stick, to poke”), also found in a number of disparate meanings, including “to crawl, to go on all four” (giving the Navajo meaning “to buck”).
Related to Navajo god (“knee”).

yą́ą́ʼdíłgééd yą́ą́ʼdíłgééd#Navajo

yą́ą́ʼdíłgééd yą́ą́ʼdíłgééd#Navajo

to dig, to shovel; to stick, to jab
 2. to buck, to move bucking (a horse)


-LOʼ

From Proto-Athabaskan *lʊk’ (“to handle rope-like object”).

to act with a rope: to carry suspended, to drive, to lasso, to weigh...


-TSĄ́

From Proto-Athabaskan *da̓-tsa-nʸ (“singular S dies”).
Cognate root found in Ahtna daztsaan (“he dies”).


-TAAZ

From Proto-Athabaskan *tatsʼ (“to twist, to roll”).


-NÁ

From Proto-Athabaskan *naʸ (“to move nomadically, to migrate”).
Cognate root found in Ahtna nininaa (“he arrived at a place with a group”).

cog

to move household, to migrate, crowd moves


-NÁ

From Proto-Athabaskan *naʸ (“to become depleted”).
Cognate root found in Ahtna tneznaan (“it went to waste”), hwnełnaan (“he won at gambling”).

inh

plural S die, (impf.) plural S get sick
 2. to win (in a competition)


-SǪS

Probably related to Proto-Athabaskan *səmˀ (“star”).
Compare Navajo sǫʼ (“star”), Chiricahua sǫǫs (“star”). Other cognates found in Tanacross sénʼ (“star”) and Ahtna sonʼ (“star”).
In Navajo this root is attested only in the neuter imperfective stem.


-NIID

From Proto-Athabaskan *ni (“to feel, to think, to want, to wish”). Relates to the mind.
Cognate root found in Ahtna uniʼoʼolnii (“I am attracted to her”), Tanacross shiiníʼ (“my mind”).
-NIID shares many stems with the roots -NÍÍD, -NIIʼ, -NÍÍʼ, -NIʼ, -NÍ, -NIH, -NIIH ~ -LĮH and -NEʼ, each of these being themselves a conflation of several originally distinct roots with at times overlapping meanings, which makes their actual identification often speculative.


-NIID

to affect, to be the solution for, to cure


-TSĄĄD

From Proto-Athabaskan *kʸan (“belly”). Cognate with atsą́ (“belly, abdomen”).
Maybe related to the root -TSĄ́Ą́ʼ (“to rain”).


-NÍÍD

-NÍÍD shares many stems with the roots -NIID, -NIIʼ, -NÍÍʼ,-NIʼ, -NÍ, -NIH, -NIIH ~ -LĮH and -NEʼ, each of these being themselves a conflation of several originally distinct roots with at times overlapping meanings, which makes their actual identification often speculative.


-YĮ́Į́ʼ

From Proto-Athabaskan *ɣ̇en (“to melt, to thaw”).


-TŁAH

From Proto-Athabaskan *tłɑx̣d (“to jump up, to move quickly, to blaze up”).
Cognate root found in Ahtna tiltlaat (“single subject moves quickly, runs”), diltlet (“it caught on fire”).
Occurs in Navajo in bases related to burning, and also in a few bases of disparate meanings in relation with nervosity and heightened feelings, some with unusual prefix compounds, listed below without further grouping.

cog

to burn, to blaze up, to catch fire
 2. to be agitated, hysterical, angry


-TŁAH

Possibly cognate with -TŁAH (“to jump up, to burn”) above. Compare with interjection in Ahtna ostla! (“stop it!”).


-TŁAH

From Proto-Athabaskan *tłɑɣ̇ (“to rub oil, to grease”). Perhaps related to -TŁÉÉʼ, classificatory root for mushy matter.
Cognate root found in Ahtna ełtlagh (“I'm rubbing it with oil”).


-CHʼI

From Proto-Athabaskan *tšʼʷəy ~ *tšʼʷi (“wind blows”).

inh

*tšʼʷəy ~ *tšʼʷi


-KAAD

From Proto-Athabaskan *qa̓tʼ (“to spread out, fall scattered, collapse, slap, clap”).
Found in Navajo in a wide range of themes related to the moving or spreading of "flatness", including classificatory root for the moving / falling or propelling of objects of the PlO2 (profusion) or OC (open container) classes, the herding of sheep over a surface, or the slapping of hands.

PlO2 (as seeds) or OC (as a bucket and its content) falls, spills, scatters
 2. to herdsheep, to drive sheep
 3. to slap, to clap hands
 4. flatness moves(other minor themes)


-ZID

From Proto-Athabaskan *zəd (“a single object undergoes cyclical process”). Found across all Athabaskan languages in a wide range of disparate themes.

a monthpasses
 2. to gather awareness: to wake up, to inspect
 3. to treat with respect, handle carefully


-TSAʼ

From Proto-Athabaskan *tsαɢ (“to act with teeth by biting”).
In Navajo this root often occurs with the emphatic infix -x-.
It is related to the noun atsá (“eagle”).

to bite down, to grasp (with teeth or beak), to clench


-KʼĄĄD

From Proto-Athabaskan *qʼanʸ (“slant, slope”).


-ZHĮ́

From Proto-Athabaskan *šen (“summer”).
In Navajo, the initial fricative *š of Proto-Athabaskan did not sonorize to zh, so in verbal stems and in the nominal stem shį́ (“summer”) the initial voiceless fricative sh is maintained (with the exception of the adverbial derivative díízhíní (“this summer”), which shows a later sonorization). However, for consistency, the stem set of this root is presented with an analogical voiced initial zh. See also -HAI (“winter”) for a similar situation.


-HAI

From Proto-Athabaskan *x̣aɣʸ (“winter”).
In Navajo, the initial fricative *x̣ of Proto-Athabaskan didn't sonorize to gh, so in verbal stems and in the nominal stem hai (“winter”) the initial voiceless fricative h is maintained (with the exception of the adverbial derivative díí ghaaí or dííghaaí (“this winter”), which shows a later sonorization). See also -ZHĮ́ (“summer”) for a similar situation.


-DĄĄD

From Proto-Athabaskan *danʸ (“spring”).
The noun daan (“spring, springtime”) is derived from this root.


-TSʼIL

From Proto-Athabaskan *kʸʼəl (“to rip, tear, split”).
The noun atsʼiil (“fragment”) is derived from this root.


-TEEL

From Proto-Athabaskan *te̓l (“to be wide, broad”).

to be wide, broad
 2. to range, to roam (as a herd, a tribe)


-GIZH

From Proto-Athabaskan *ɢəž (“to act with a stick, to be forked”).
Cognate root found in Ahtna delggez (“it is forked”), gges (“skewer”).
Found in Navajo in a number of disparate themes related to cutting, to forked or gapped shape, to seeping/spreading, and to acting with a stick or gestures.
Also found in a base related to flashing, probably a corruption of the root -GĘZH, of similar meaning (see -KĘ́Ę́Z/-KÉÉZ for a similar situation).

to cut, to incise; to be forked, to have a gap
 2. to soak, to seep, to spread
 3. to act with a stick or gestures
 4. to flash


-KʼAII

From Proto-Athabaskan *qʼ'a̓ɣ̇ (“fat, to be fat”).
Cognate root found in Ahtna lkʼaax (“it is fat”).


-GIZ

From Proto-Athabaskan *ɢətsʼ (“twist, wring”). Compare Carrier nasguz (“wash wet linen”) and Tanacross nachʼegétth (“wash (especially clothes)”).
In Navajo the momentaneous imperfective stem is attested in the doublet: -géés / -gíís. This root is related with -GEEZ (“to be twisted, crooked”).


-CHIŁ

to glitter, to glisten (like the sunlight, a jewel or a pearl)


-TSʼĮĮL

In today's Navajo this root is obsolete and appears to be related to -TSʼÍLÍ (“to be clear”).


-NÁÁŁ

From Proto-Athabaskan *-nαɣ̇αɬ (“be in one's presence”). Compare also Navajo anááʼ (“eye”).
This quasi-verb root is alway bounded with possessive prefixes indicating the subject, like in the phrase shinááł, meaning “I witness” (literally, “it is in my presence”).

inh

to witness, to watch, to be in one's presence


-TʼÉ

Uncertain. Possibly from Proto-Athabaskan *tʼe (“roast, cook”).


-CHʼĮ́Į́D

This root only occurs in a neuter perfective base which serves as an enclitic word attached to a noun stem. The original meaning of this root appears to be reduced or abbreviated, but nowadays it refers to the hoarseness and stubbiness of ears and horns of animals, and to the change of voice during adolescence. Probably cognate with -CHʼĮ́Į́DÍ (“to be few”).


-CHʼĮ́Į́DÍ

Probably derived from the root -CHʼĮ́Į́D (“to be reduced”) + -í (nominalizer). Cognates found in Carrier ntsʼid (“be few”) and Hupa -chʼid (“die, become exhausted”).


-ZÉÍ

From Proto-Athabaskan *saːxy ~ *zay (“sand, to crumble”). Compare Navajo séí (“sand”).
Cognates found in Tanacross thaayh (“sand”) and also Tlingit xágw (“sand”).

to crumble, be crumbly (as soft sandstone)


-TSĄ́Ą́ʼ

From Proto-Athabaskan *kʸaˑn (“rain”). Possibly related to the root -TSĄĄD (“to be pregnant”).
Navajo níłtsą́ (“rain”) originates from this root. Other cognates are found in Ahtna caan (“rain”), Dena'ina kun (“rain”), Koyukon konh (“rain”) and Hupa kyangkyoh (“hailstorm”).


-GĄĄZH

Unknown. The underlying meaning is also obscure. According to Young and Morgan, it is related to the noun íígąsh (“semen”).


-TʼĮ́Į́H

Possibly a cognate with the root -ʼĮĮD (“to bark”), which in turn appears to be related to -ʼĮ́Į́ʼ (“to see, look”).
It only occurs in the neuter imperfective mode.

to practice witchcraft, be a witch or a wizard


-YÉÉʼ

to be dreadful, be terrifying, be menacing


-WOZH

From Proto-Athabaskan *x̣əš (“thorn”). The noun hosh (“cactus”) comes from this root.


-WOZH

From Proto-Athabaskan *ɣ̇ətšʼ (“to tickle”).


-TʼÉÉZH

From Proto-Athabaskan *tʼetšʼ (“to blacken with charcoal”). Compare also Navajo tʼeesh (“charcoal”).


-KʼǪSH

From Proto-Athabaskan *qʼutšʼ (“to be sour, rancid”).
In Northern Athabaskan languages, the stem Proto-Athabaskan *qʼəž, with the same meaning, is derived from Proto-Athabaskan *qʼəš (“alder”), whence Navajo kʼish (“alder”).

to be sour, be rancid, be bitter, be salty


-YĄĄD

From Proto-Athabaskan *ɣʸanʸ (“to be wise, be aged”). Nouns such as są́ (“old aged”) and sání (“elderly, old one”) both belong to this root.
Possibly related to the root -YĄ́ (“to grow”).


-CHĮĮD

The noun áháchįʼ (“anger”) derives from the contraction of the neuter imperfective verb hachįʼ (“it is nasty”) and the postposition á (“for someone”).
The momentaneous perfective stem of this root is either -chįįd or -chįʼ.


-CHĮĮD

Compare Carrier -tsin (“to be weak”).
This root is attested only in the durative aspect.


-TSʼĮĮD

From Proto-Athabaskan *də·tsʼən (“to be bony, hard”). Navajo atsʼin (“bone”) originates from this root.

to be bony, be hard, be mature, be expert


-CHʼÍÍʼ

From Proto-Athabaskan *tšʼikʸʼ (“be peppery, hot”).

to burn, inflame, irritate, be peppery, be hot, be bitter


-TSIZ

Possibly from two different stems, later confused, mainly Proto-Athabaskan *tsəz (“to become extinguished”) and Proto-Athabaskan *tsa̓z (“to be apprehensive, fearful”).
Compare also -TSEED (“sink, soak”), which may be cognate with this root.


-LID

From Proto-Athabaskan *ləd (“to burn, smoke”). Compare Navajo łid (“smoke”).


-TSʼÍLÍ

Cognate with Dena'ina chʼul, Koyukon tsʼəł, both meaning “to be bright, clear”.
Apparently related to the root -TSʼĮĮL (“to be clear”).


-LĮ́

From Proto-Athabaskan *lənʸ (“to flow”), possibly from Pre-Proto-Athabaskan *ɬ-hənʸ. The original *-ł- classifier fused with the following segment and, due to a subsequent sonorization, has been reinterpreted as the initial consonant of the stem.
This root occurs almost exclusively in the neuter perfective mode, although the repetitive stem -lį́į́h (< -d- + -łį́į́h) is apparently attested in the toponym Tó Nehelį́į́h (literally “where water customarily flows one time after another to a stopping point”), derived from the usitative form of neheezlį́ (Young & Morgan, 1991).


-CHÍÍL

From Proto-Athabaskan *tšitɬʼ (“snow”). Compare Navajo chííl (“snowstorm”). The root often appears with the emphatic infix -x-.
The verb yíchííł translates as “a snowstorm arrives” in the imperfective mode, while in the perfective mode it means “it snows”.


-YĄ́

From Proto-Athabaskan *ɣʸanʸ (“to grow”). Possibly from the same source of the root -YĄĄD (“to be wise, experienced”).
The meaning of this root refers either to physical maturity of humans or to an increment in size of plants and vegetation.
The initial consonant of the root is subjected to the following irregular phonetic alterations:
* In the theme ni + ∅ + -YĄ́ (“to grow up, mature, accumulate”, intransitive)
** when preceded by the voiceless fricative -sh-, the marker of the first person singular, it surfaces as y (IPA: [j̝])
**: e.g., nishyé (“I grow up”, imperfective), dínéeshyééł (“I will grow up”, future) and nóshyééł (“I would grow up”, optative)
** in the first person duoplural, due to the d-effect, it is realized as g (IPA: [k])
**: e.g., niigé (“we (two) grow up”, imperfective), díníigééł (“we (two) will grow up”, future) and noogééł (“we (two) would grow up”, optative)
* In the theme O + ni + ł + -YĄ́ (“to raise O, bring O up”, transitive)
** it merges with the ł-classifier, producing s (IPA: [s])
**: e.g., yinisé (“s/he raises him/her”, imperfective), yidínóosééł (“s/he will raise him/her”, future), yinósééł (“s/he would raise him/her”, optative)
** it becomes z (IPA: [z]) after l (< d + ł-classifier, by d-effect), especially in passive themes (ni + l + -YĄ́, “to be raised, reared”, passive)
**: e.g., nilzé (“it is raised”, passive of the preceding base, imperfective)
The momentaneous imperfective stem has two shapes, mainly -yééh and -yé. The latter, however, is identical to the conclusive imperfective stem of the same root.

to grow up, mature, grow in size, accumulate


-DÁÁZ

From Proto-Athabaskan *daːʼz ~ *das (“to be heavy”). Compare Chipewyan yekʼéghíłdath (“it is coming down heavy on him”) and Navajo das (“weight”).
In active intransitive bases this root describes the movement of a mass of plural objects. In neuter adjectival and comparative bases it retains the original meaning “to be heavy”.


-JIŁ

Unknown.
This root is attested in the neuter imperfective mode only.

to be lusty, be libidinous, be sexually promiscuous


-KʼĮH

Probably from Proto-Athabaskan *qʼəy (“birch”).
Cognates found in Koyukon dodaalkkʼeyh (“it is layered”) and Dena'ina tqʼey (“it is shingled with bark”).


-ZEEZ

From Proto-Athabaskan *ha̓dž ~ *yadž (“singe”).


-NÍÍʼ

to be in charge, have authority or control over


-LÁÁʼ

Possibly Proto-Athabaskan *la̓G (“make”)


-TʼOH

to shoot an arrow, to throw or stab with a spear


-KÁÁL

From Proto-Athabaskan *kal (“spread out, stretch out”).


-TŁʼIN

become firm, packed down (but not hard and dry)


-JAAʼ

to handle, move PlO2 (plural objects, usually small and in large number, such as seeds)


-KĄ́

From Proto-Athabaskan *qaːŋ (“to handle an object in a container”)

to handle, move an object within an open container


-KʼĄ́Ą́ʼ

From Proto-Athabaskan *qʼaːnʼ (“to burn”).


-LÁ

to handle, move a solid flexible object (SFO) or pair of objects


-YĮ́

to handle, move an load, pack, or burden (LPB)


-DEEʼ

to move through the air (of plural objects)

to cause adhering matter to move off of a surface


-TSʼID

to move through the air or water (of a solid roundish object/SRO)


-ZHOOZH

to move by sliding (a loose mass of rocks, coins, grains, or other small objects)


-ZHǪǪD

to become or be peaceful, harmonious, good, nice


-DLÍ

to freeze, freeze to death, become very cold


-CHXOZH

From -CHOZH (“to eat leafy matter”) + -x- (emphatic infix).


-GHAL

to move in a rolling, undulating, or turning manner; wriggle

(by extension) to eat meat, move the eyes


-BID

From Proto-Athabaskan *wə̓tʼ (“to be gluttonous”). Related to the noun abid (“stomach”).


-DZĄ́

to dehair, scrape (a hide prior to tanning)


-TAH

to lash, dart, spring, (of an object under tension) move suddenly


-TʼĄ́Ą́Z

to cut, slice, slash with a sharp instrument


-TSXAS

to act in a violent, whip-lashing manner

to strike with a slender flexible object (SFO)


-TSXAAZ

From Proto-Athabaskan *tsa̓z, with the emphatic infix -x-. Compare -TSAA (“to be big”)