-를

From Middle Korean 를〮/ᄅᆞᆯ〮 (Yale: -lúl/lól), probably a reduplication of 을〮/ᄋᆞᆯ〮 (Yale: -úl/ól). See the main entry for more.

Post-vowel allomorphic form of 을 (-eul, direct object marker).


요

For the verb-final particle, see the entry at 요 (-yo).


같이

First attested in the Worin cheon'gangjigok (月印千江之曲 / 월인천강지곡), 1449, as Middle Korean ᄀᆞ티 (Yale: kothi), equivalent to 같 (gat-, “to be the same”) + 이 (-i, suffix deriving adverbs).


-처럼

[t͡ɕʰʌ̹ɾʌ̹m]

First attested in the Sohak eonhae (小學諺解 / 소학언해), 1586, as Middle Korean 톄로 (Yale: thyeylwo). From Sino-Korean 톄 (體, tye, “manner, way”) and the postposition 로 (-ro, “in ..., by ...”).

ko-etym-native

이전처럼

형제처럼

개미처럼 부지런하다

내일 죽을 것처럼 살아라.

나비처럼 날아서 벌처럼 쏘다

to fly like a butterfly, to sting like a bee

nabi-cheoreom naraseo beol-cheoreom ssoda


-이다

head

이다 • (-ida) (infinitive 야 or 이야, sequential 이니)

이다 (canonical)
-ida (romanization)
야 (infinitive)
이야 (infinitive)
이니 (sequential)
-이다 (formal indicative non-past)
-이야 (indicative informal non-past)
-이에요 (indicative informal non-past polite)
-예요 (indicative informal non-past polite)
-입니다 (formal indicative non-past polite)
-이었다 (formal indicative past)
-였다 (formal indicative past)
-이었어 (indicative informal past)
-였어 (indicative informal past)
-이었어요 (indicative informal past polite)
-였어요 (indicative informal past polite)
-이었습니다 (formal indicative past polite)
-였습니다 (formal indicative past polite)
-이냐 (formal interrogative non-past)
-이야 (informal interrogative non-past)
-이에요 (informal interrogative non-past polite)
-예요 (informal interrogative non-past polite)
-입니까 (formal interrogative non-past polite)
-이었느냐 (formal interrogative past)
-였느냐 (formal interrogative past)
-이었어 (informal interrogative past)
-였어 (informal interrogative past)
-이었어요 (informal interrogative past polite)
-였어요 (informal interrogative past polite)
-이었습니까 (formal interrogative past polite)
-였습니까 (formal interrogative past polite)
-이겠다 (assertive formal)
-이겠어 (assertive informal)
-이겠어요 (assertive informal polite)
-이겠습니다 (assertive formal polite)
-이에 (causative formal)
-이어서 (causative informal)
-이니 (causative informal polite)
-이니까 (causative formal polite)
-이지만 (contrastive formal)
-인데 (contrastive informal)
-이더니 (contrastive informal polite)
-이고 (conjunctive formal)
-이면 (conditional formal)
-이어야 (conditional informal)
-임 (formal noun-from-verb)
-이기 (informal noun-from-verb)
-이었음 (formal noun-from-verb past)
-였음 (formal noun-from-verb past)
-이었기 (informal noun-from-verb past)
-였기 (informal noun-from-verb past)
-인 (determiner informal present)
-일 (determiner future informal)
-이시다 (indicative non-past)
-이셔 (indicative informal non-past)
-이세요 (indicative non-past polite)
-이셔요 (indicative non-past polite)
-이십니다 (formal indicative non-past)
-이셨다 (indicative past)
-이셨어 (indicative informal past)
-이셨어요 (indicative past polite)
-이셨습니다 (formal indicative past)
-이시냐 (interrogative non-past)
-이셔 (informal interrogative non-past)
-이세요 (interrogative non-past polite)
-이셔요 (interrogative non-past polite)
-이십니까 (formal interrogative non-past)
-이셨냐 (interrogative past)
-이셨어 (informal interrogative past)
-이셨어요 (interrogative past polite)
-이셨습니까 (formal interrogative past)
-이시겠다 (assertive)
-이시겠어 (assertive informal)
-이시겠어요 (assertive polite)
-이시겠습니다 (assertive formal)
-이셔 (causative)
-이셔서 (causative informal)
-이시니 (causative polite)
-이시니까 (causative formal)
-이시지만 (contrastive)
-이신데 (contrastive informal)
-이시더니 (contrastive polite)
-이시고 (conjunctive)
-이시면 (conditional)
-이셔야 (conditional informal)
-이심 (noun-from-verb)
-이시기 (informal noun-from-verb)
-이셨음 (noun-from-verb past)
-이셨기 (informal noun-from-verb past)
-이신 (determiner informal present)
-이실 (determiner future informal)

From Middle Korean 이〮라〮 (-í-lá), from Old Korean 是 (*i-). For the dialectal politeness particle use, compare 요 (-yo), Jeolla Korean 이라우 (-irau), both of which come from the copula.

사람은 동물이다.

이 나무는 큰 편이다.

전쟁은 바람직하지 않은 일이다.

Jeonjaeng-eun baramjikha-ji an-eun ir-ida.

악마도 한때 천사였다.


-이다

intimate-
w:Korean speech levels#Hae-che

semiformal-style
w:Korean speech levels#Hao-che

(eastern Jeolla dialect, southwestern Gyeongsang) A particle attached to intimate-, plain-, and semiformal-style verbs and adjectives to add a greater level of politeness.


-에서

From Middle Korean 에〮셔〮 (Yale: -éy-syé), equivalent to 에 (-e) + 서 (-seo). Compare 어서 (-eoseo), 면서 (-myeonseo). The second element is from the infinitive of the verb 이시다〮 (Yale: ìsìtá, “to be at”).

어디에서 왔어요?

깊은 신앙심에서 우러나오는 순수함

an innocence springing forth from deep religious faith

gipeun sinangsim-eseo ureonaoneun sunsuham

1에서 10까지

집에서 낮잠 잔다.

국가에서 준 돈

(for an organization) Marks the nominative case.


-하고

From Middle Korean ᄒᆞ고〮 (Yale: -hòkwó), equivalent to 하 (ha, “to say; to do”) + 고 (-go, connective suffix).

af

이거하고 저거만 샀어.

남자친구하고 가면 재밌어.


-이며

총 쏘기는 말할 것도 없고 행보하는 법이며 체조며 온갖 조련을 다하였다.

1929, Kim Gu, 백범일지 [Baekbeom Ilji], volume I, published 1947:

They engaged in all sorts of military training—the proper gait and exercises and [whatnot]—not even to mention how to shoot.

Chong ssogi-neun malhal geotdo eopgo haengbohaneun beob-imyeo chejo-myeo on'gat joryeon-eul dahayeotda.


에

For the locative particle, see the entry at 에 (-e).


-에게

엄마에게 전화를 했습니다.


-한테

친구한테 생일 선물을 보냈어요.

chin'gu-hante saeng'il seonmur-eul bonaesseoyo.


-만큼

Of native Korean origin. Same as 만큼 (mankeum, dependent noun); see there for more.


-으로

From Middle Korean 으〮로〮 (Yale: -úlwó), from Old Korean 乙留 (*-ulwo).

나무 방향으로 가자.

Let's go toward the direction of the tree.

집으로 가다가 노숙자를 만났다.

I met a homeless person while going home [lit. going towards home].

to, toward: directional case marker, in a physical sense

사람이 호랑이로 변했다.

나무를 풀로 바꾸자.

올해로 한국어를 배운 지 3년이 됐다.

This year it's been 3 years since I've started learning Korean.

Olhaero han'gugeo-reul bae'un ji 3nyeon-i dwaetda.

into, direction of a change: directional case marker in a metaphorical sense; expresses transformation or direction towards a certain time

종이로 옷을 만들어봤다.

칼로 돌을 깎았다.

오랑캐로 오랑캐를 제어한다.

One controls barbarians using [other] barbarians.

뒷문으로 둘어와.

using, out of; with: instrumental case marker, marking material, instruments, or means of doing something

독감으로 돌아가셨다.

로또로 부자 됐어.

due to; from: instrumental case marker, marking causation

몇 년 간 거지로 살았다.

좋은 친구로 생각한다.

긍정적으로 생각을 해야 돼.

Geungjeongjeogeuro saenggag-eul haeya dwae.

as; as being; in the state of: instrumental case marker, marking state, manner, status, or capacity

오늘 부로 너는 지각을 다섯 번 했어.

As of today, you've been late five times.

Oneul bu-ro neo-neun jigag-eul daseot beon haesseo.

as of: instrumental case marker, marking an update in a list of previous events

아홉시로 열두시ᄭᅡ지는 이경이오 十(십)二(이)시로브터 상오 세시ᄭᅡ지는 삼경이라

1901, 神(신)學(학)月(월)報(보) [Theological Monthly], volume 4:

From nine to twelve, it is the second watch; from twelve to three in the afternoon, it is the third watch.

ahop-si-ro yeoldu-si-kkaji-neun igyeong-io sibi-si-ro-beuteo sang'o se-si-kkaji-neun samgyeong-ira

(archaic) from; egressive case marker, in a physical or chronological sense

(Gyeongsang) Marks the direct object for certain action verbs, especially verbs that have a direct impact on the object.

See 으로 하여 (-euro hayeo, “because of; via”).

으로 하여
-으로 하여#Korean

See 으로 하여금 (-euro hayeogeum, expresses the agent in a causative construction).

으로 하여금
-으로 하여금#Korean

See 으로 더불어 (-euro deobureo, “together with”).

으로 더불어
-으로 더불어#Korean


-께

저는 선생님께 사과를 드렸습니다.

jeo-neun seonsaengnim-kke sagwa-reul deuryeotseumnida.

어머님께 온 편지

(honorific) The honorific form of the particle 에게 (ege) meaning to, by, or for


-께서

선생님께서 저에게 사과를 주셨습니다.

seonsaengnim-kkeseo jeo-ege sagwa-reul jusyeotseumnida.

The honorific form of the particles 이 (-i) and 가 (-ga) denoting the subject of a sentence.


-까지

First attested in the Seokbo sangjeol (釋譜詳節 / 석보상절), 1447, as Middle Korean ᄭᆞ자ᇰ〮 (Yale: skòcáng), from ㅅ (Yale: -s, genitive marker) + ᄀᆞ자ᇰ〮 (Yale: kòcáng, “very, extremely”).

ko-etym-native

나는 한 시부터 늦게까지 공부했어요.

naneun han sibuteo neutgekkaji gongbuhaesseoyo.

매리가 부산에서 서울까지 열차로 갔어요.

Mary went as far as/to Seoul from Busan by train.

Maeriga Busaneseo Seoulkkaji yeolcharo gasseoyo.

(generally) until, till, by (a time), up to

Used to illustrate the extent of a finished action or situation.

일년 더 걸려도 서울대에 입학할 때까지 공부하기로 결정했어요.

Even if it takes one more year I have decided that I will study until I get into Seoul National University.

illyeon deo geollyeodo Seouldaee iphakhal ttaekkaji gongbuhagiro gyeoljeonghaesseoyo.

Used to illustrate to what extent an action will continue.

존이 동우를 이렇게까지 좋아할 줄 몰랐어요.

I had no idea how much John liked Dongwoo.

Joni Dong'ureul ireokekkaji joahal jul mollasseoyo.

Used to illustrate the degree or intensity of a situation.


-부터

나는 한 시부터 늦게까지 공부했어요.

I studied (starting) from one o’clock until late.

na-neun han si-buteo neutge-kkaji gongbuhaesseoyo.

(generally) Used to show when or where an action or situation started.

Used to illustrate the time that a certain action or situation began or will begin: (start) from; (start) at

시험은 범위가 15 (십오)쪽부터 56 (오십육)쪽까지예요.
siheom-eun beomwi-ga 15 (sibo)-jjok-buteo 56 (osibyuk)-jjok-kkaji-yeyo.
Speaking of the test, it covers from page 15 to page 56.

매리가 부산에서부터 열차를 탔어요.

Mary rode the train (starting) from Busan.

maeri-ga Busan-eseo-buteo yeolcha-reul tasseoyo.

Used to illustrate the place that a certain action began or will begin: from. Can be used after 에서 (eseo) 로 (ro) also together meaning "from".

손부터 씻고 먹어요.

좋은 음식을 먹고부터는 몸이 좋아졌다.

jo'eun eumsig-eul meokgo-buteoneun mom-i joajeotda.

할 일이 많아서 무엇부터 해야 할지 모르겠어요.

I have so much work, I do not know where to start from.

hal ir-i manaseo mueot-buteo haeya halji moreugesseoyo.

Used to illustrate an order of a series of actions.


-서

거기서 왔어?


-스

김스 OO ― gimseu OO ― Kim's ...


-며

From Middle Korean 며〮 (Yale: -myé). See the main entry for more.

Post-vowel allomorph form of 이며 (-imyeo, “and”).

Short for 고 하며 (-go ha-myeo, “while saying that...”).

Alternative form of 면서 (-myeonseo, “even though [one] said..."; "you said... right?”)


-쓰

Perhaps originally intended to make the word sound more English.

상우쓰 뭐해?

(chiefly Internet slang, humorous) Used after a noun, a personal name, or (less commonly) a verb or adjective in order to express affection or add a “memey” effect.


-고

Contracted from 하고 (hago, “that”, used to quote speech, literally “[one] said, and...”), hence formally identical to the connective suffix above. First attested widely in the Ildong Jang'yu-ga (日東壯遊歌 / 일동장유가), 1763, and other mid-eighteenth-century works.

lang

日東壯遊歌 / 일동장유가

日東壯遊歌 / 일동장유가

자기가 먹었다고 그랬다.

내가 어디 가냐고 물었다.

거기로 가자고 말했다.

왕은 신하에게 자결하라고 명령했다.

The king commanded the minister to take his own life.

Wang-eun sinha-ege jagyeolha-ra-go myeongnyeong-haetda.

"plain style"
w:Korean speech levels#Haera-che

that; quotative particle marking indirect quotes. Attaches to mood-marking verb-final suffixes of the "plain style".

내가 먹었다고?

나도 갔냐고?

거기로 가자고요?

어디 가라고요?

intimate style
w:Korean speech levels#Hae-che

In the intimate style, a particle attached to verbs to request confirmation of what the speaker has just heard; by extension, can express surprise about what they have just heard.

내가 메달을 땄다고.

너도 좋았냐고.

얼른 가자고.

I said, let's leave as soon as possible.

빨리 나가라고요.

In the intimate style, a particle attached to verbs to emphasize that the speaker is repeating something they have just said; by extension, can be used to express emphasis or annoyance even if one is not actually repeating something.

Used with the declarative in certain constructions as 다고 (-dago); see there for more.


-고

From Middle Korean 고 (Yale: -kwó), from Old Korean 古 (*-kwo). In Old and Middle Korean, the word was not a suffix but an interrogative particle for polar questions, combining directly with nouns and taking the adnominal forms of verbs, whence ㄴ고 (-n'go) and ㄹ꼬 (-lkko).
In the standard Seoul dialect of the language, the suffix is no longer used in isolation and generally dated or archaic; see "Related terms" below.

이 뭣고? (a Buddhist koan)

(Gyeongsang) See above; sometimes appended directly to the noun, as in older forms of the language.


-이라

Short for 이라고 (-irago, introduces direct quotes, etc.).


-라고

아이는 "감사합니다"라고 말했다.

Post-vowel allomorphic form of 이라고 (-irago).


-다가

First attested in the Worin seokbo (月印釋譜 / 월인석보), 1459, as Middle Korean 다가〮 (Yale: -tàká), from 다ᄀᆞ다 (Yale: tako-ta, “to hold, to have”) + 아〮 (Yale: -á, verbal infinitive suffix). Equivalent to modern 다그 (dageu-) + 아 (-a).

okm-l

여기다가 두면 되겠소?

톱으로다가 나무를 이렇게 자르시오.

Tob-euro-daga namu-reul ireoke jareusio.


-이나

From Middle Korean 이나〮 (Yale: -ìná), equivalent to 이 (Yale: -ì-, copula) + 나〮 (Yale: -ná).

헛소리 말고 잠이나 자라.

초콜릿 그만 먹고 이거나 먹어.

Stop eating chocolate and just eat this.

일반 배송은 이틀이나 사흘 정도 걸립니다.

Regular delivery takes two or three days.

Ilban baesong-eun iteur-ina saheul jeongdo geollimnida.

나 살 2kg이나 쪘어.

마음에 드는 것이면 어느 것이나 좋다.

Ma'eum-e deuneun geos-imyeon eoneu geos-ina jota.


-조차

[t͡ɕo̞t͡ɕʰa̠]

그 사람하고는 말하기조차 싫어요.

I don't even want to talk to that person.

geu saram-hago-neun malhagi-jocha sireoyo.


-밖에

우리는 당신밖에 모른다

"We Will Follow You Only" (lit. "We Know No One but You")


-라도

Short for 라(고 해)도 (-ra(-go hae)-do, “even if one says that...”).

굶주리면 풀뿌리라도 캐먹는다.

When you are starving, you will dig up and eat even the roots of weeds.

Post-vowel allomorphic form of 이라도 (-irado, “even”).


-라우

돈을 어찌게 벌어라우?

1984 May 14, 정순종 [jeongsunjong], “말 한마디로 건진 목숨 [mal hanmadiro geonjin moksum]”, in 한국구비문학대계 [han'gukgubimunhakdaegye], 전라북도 정주시 (현 정읍시) 연지동 [jeollabukdo jeongjusi (hyeon jeong'eupsi) yeonjidong]:

Post-vowel allomorphic form of 이라우 (-irau, politeness-marking particle (Jeolla dialect)).


-이라서

저는 학생이라서 돈이 없어요.

I am a student, so I don't have (much) money.

Jeo-neun haksaeng-iraseo don-i eopseo-yo.

왜 한국어를 배우세요? — 여자친구가 한국 사람이라서요.

Why are you learning Korean? ― Because my girlfriend is Korean.

Wae Han'gugeo-reul bae'useyo? - Yeojachin'gu-ga Han'guk saram-iraseo-yo.

See 이다 (-ida, “to be”) and 라서 (-raseo, “since, because”).


-에다가

From 에 (-e, locative particle) + 다가 (-daga, emphatic marker).

com

침대 옆에다가 컵을 놓았어.

예술에다가 인생을 바쳤다.

(both literal and figurative) right by, right at; an emphatic locative particle

밥에다가 빵까지 먹으니까 정말 배부르다.

I am truly full after eating bread on top of rice.

Bab-edaga ppang-kkaji meogeunikka jeongmal baebureuda.

on top of, in addition to; an emphatic particle used in enumeration

어떻게 교육을 군대에다가 비교를 하십니까?

2010, “초·중·고 개학 첫날, 반발 속 체벌금지 혼선 [cho·jung·go gaehak cheonnal, banbal sok chebeolgeumji honseon]”, in KBS News:

How can you compare education to the army?


-이시여

First attested in the early twentieth century.
From a reanalysis of 이여 (-iyeo, “O”, exclamatory vocative particle) as being a suffixed form of the copula 이 (-i-), which was then made honorific with the suffix 시 (-si-).

영명하신 신령이시여, 살려주소서.

임금이시여, 나라를 버리시나이까?

(honorific) O honored... (vocative particle showing extreme respect.)


-이여

From Middle Korean 이〮여〮 (Yale: -í-yé), from Old Korean 亦 (*-ye), 也 (*-ye).
Note that there is no Old or Middle Korean evidence that the first syllable is supposed to be the copula 이다 (-ida); the honorific form 이시여 (-isiyeo), which would suggest such an origin, is first attested only in the twentieth century.

서울이여 안녕!

영원해라, 나의 이 행복이여.

May it be everlasting, o this happiness of mine.

(literary) O; vocative particle with exclamatory nuances, attaching to nouns and nominalized verbs.


-이여

(Chungcheong, Jeolla dialect) and; connective particle for enumerating nouns.


-서꺼랑

서꺼랑 (canonical)
-seokkeorang (romanization)

[sʰʌ̹k͈ʌ̹ɾa̠ŋ]

서껀 (-seokkeon, “with”) + 랑 (-rang, “with”).

compound

순자서꺼랑 빨리 집에 가라우.


-서껀

From 섞 (seok-, “to mix”) + 어 (-eo, infinitive suffix) + ㄴ (-n).


-꺼정

꺼정 (canonical)
-kkeojeong (romanization)

[k͈ʌ̹d͡ʑʌ̹ŋ]

From Middle Korean ᄭᆞ자ᇰ〮 (Yale: skòcáng), related to synonymous Standard Seoul 까지 (kkaji).

내가 아침부텀 인저꺼정 기냥 일했다야.

I've been working from the morning until now.

Naega achim-buteom injeokkeojeong ginyang ilhaet-da-ya.

부분대장이 돼가주고 저 낙동강옆변꺼정 갔다가... 고향에 와서 왔지

2013 June 21, 권문국 [gwonmun'guk], “나의 살던 고향은 [naui saldeon gohyang'eun]”, in KBS 고향극장 [KBS gohyanggeukjang], 함경남도 여흥군 (현 금야군) [hamgyeongnamdo yeoheunggun (hyeon geumyagun)]:

So I became an assistant squad leader and went all the way down south until the river side of the Nakdong River... then I went [back north] to my hometown.

(dialectal, including Gangwon, Gyeongsang, Hamgyong, Chungcheong, Seoul, Hwanghae) until, by


-을

From Middle Korean 을〮/ᄋᆞᆯ〮 (Yale: -úl/ól), from Old Korean 乙 (*-ur) in the early second millennium, from even earlier 肹 in the late first millennium. The post-vocalic form 를 (-reul) is probably formed by pre-Middle Korean reduplication, with the original form ㄹ (-l) now relegated to colloquial speech.

너를 사랑했어.

사람을 살리다

꽃을 보다

부산을 가다 ― busan-eul gada ― to go to Busan

공부를 하다

컨닝을 하다

The accusative particle, indicating the direct object of a verb.

아기는 울지를 않았다.

배구 선수는 공을 놓치지를 않았다.

The volleyball player did not lose the ball.

Baegu seonsu-neun gong-eul notchiji-reul anatda.

In "long negation" constructions with 지 (-ji), attaches to the negated verb to add emphasis.

(southern Gyeongsang) Indicates the indirect object of a verb.


-사

From Old Korean 沙 (*-sa). Preserves the lost sibilant initial, cf. Middle Korean ᅀᅡ〮 (Yale: -zá).

점드락 기달르고 있었는디 인자사 늦게 왔냐?

1982 August 8, 고상락 [gosangnak], “통두란과 이성계 [tongduran'gwa iseonggye]”, in 한국구비문학대계 [han'gukgubimunhakdaegye], 전라북도 옥구군 대야면 (현 군산시 대야면) [jeollabukdo okgugun daeyamyeon (hyeon gunsansi daeyamyeon)]:

I've been waiting here all day long but now you come late?

Gyeongsang, Hamgyong, Yukjin, and Jeolla dialect form of 야 (-ya, idiomatic emphatic particle).


-ㅅ

거기 섯!

가잣!

힘내랏...

따로 버려야 해욧

2019, 조광일 [jogwang'il], “생활 속 작은 실천이 지구를 살린다 [saenghwal sok jageun silcheoni jigureul sallinda]”, in idomin.com:

(colloquial) a sentence-final emphatic particle, most common among younger speakers

ㅂ

-p, colloquial particle connoting certitude


-아

From Middle Korean 아〮 (Yale: -á), from Old Korean 良 (*-a).

Coordinate term: 이여 (-iyeo, formal honorific vocative)

멍멍아, 어디 있니?

선민아, 너 오늘 뭐 해?

hey; vocative particle for those of lower or equal status than the speaker, such as children; used after consonants.


-ㄴ

From Middle Korean ㄴ (Yale: -n). See the main entry for more.

Colloquial post-vowel allomorphic form of 은 (-eun, topic marker).


-나

From Middle Korean 나〮 (Yale: -ná). See the main entry for more.

Post-vowel allomorphic form of 이나 (-ina).


-ㄹ

From Middle Korean ㄹ (Yale: -l). See the main entry for more.

Colloquial post-vowel allomorphic form of 을 (-eul, accusative case marker).


-는

From Middle Korean 는〮 (Yale: -nún), ᄂᆞᆫ〮 (Yale: -nón), probably a reduplication of 은〮 (Yale: -ún), ᄋᆞᆫ〮 (Yale: -ón). See the main entry for more.

Post-vowel allomorphic form of 은 (-eun, topic marker).


-니

A nineteenth-century contraction of Early Modern Korean ᄂᆞ니 (-neuni), which it replaces, as attested by the older spelling 늬 (-nui). The uncontracted form is now written 느니 (-neuni) due to spelling reforms and no longer has interrogative meaning; see there for more. As expected by the etymology, 니 (-ni) could originally only combine with verbs and existential adjectives but expanded rapidly to adjectives in the early twentieth century.

친구가 아프다니?

같이 런던으로 가자니?

Is he asking [you] to go to London with him?

With an indirect quote, equivalent to a short form of 고 하니 (-go ha-ni, “does [one] say that...”)

나보고 도둑이냐니.

How on earth could he ask if I'm a thief?

With an indirect quote, equivalent to a short form of 고 하다니 (-go ha-dani, “how can [one] say that...”)


-니

From Middle Korean 니〮 (Yale: -ní). See the main entry for more.

너가 아니라니 다행이야.

여기 남으라니 남았지.

좋은 대학에 붙었다니 잘 됐지.

Given that [they say] he went to a good university, things have turned out well.

Jo'eun daehag-e buteot-da-ni jal dwaetji.

In an indirect quote, equivalent to a short form of 고 하니 (-go ha-ni, “since [one] says that...”)


-은

From Middle Korean 은〮/ᄋᆞᆫ〮 (Yale: -ún/-ón), from Old Korean 隱 (*-(u)n). Attested since the very beginning of Korean writing in the first millennium. The post-vocalic form 는 (-neun) is probably formed by pre-Middle Korean reduplication, with the original form ㄴ (-n) now relegated to colloquial speech.

오늘은 너무 춥다.

그 일은 잊어버리자.

서울에는 사람이 너무 많다.

In Seoul [TOP], there are too many people.

The Korean topic marker, with various nuances according to context:

Used to mark an already known topic, to which the subsequent statement applies.

한국은 작은 나라가 아닙니다.

해는 매일 아침 동쪽에서 뜬다.

The sun [TOP] rises every morning in the east.

Hae-neun maeil achim dongjjog-eseo tteunda.

Used to mark the topic in statements of general fact.

이건 엄마 꺼야. ― 아빠 꺼는? ― Igeon eomma kkeo-ya. ― Appa kkeo-neun? ― This is for Mom. ― And for Dad [TOP]?

우리 형 여기 있어. ― 너희 누나는? ― Uri hyeong yeogi isseo. ― Neohui nuna-neun? ― My brother is here. ― And your sister [TOP]?

what about; Used without a predicate to demand new information about an already known topic.

눈은 예쁘네.

Her eyes [TOP] are pretty [implied: but she is otherwise not pretty.]

친구는 많은데 절친은 없다.

She has lots of friends [TOP] but no best friend [TOP].

Chin'gu-neun maneunde jeolchin-eun eopda.

Used in contrastive constructions, often with an exclusive sense (i.e. this and not anything else).

너 없이는 못 산다.

난 딱히 하고 싶은 말 없어.

I [TOP] don't have anything in particular I want to say.

Used to background previously known information, in order to highlight the importance of the statement which follows; the marked topic is omittable.


-이라고

Grammaticalized in the late nineteenth century from 이라 (하)고 (-i-ra (ha)-go, “[saying] that it is […] ”), originally used for nouns.

너가 나한테 "사랑해"라고 했잖아.

Neo-ga na-hante saranghae-rago haetjana.

Introduces direct quotes. Compare 고 (-go).

공부라고 한 게 이거야?
Gongbu-rago han ge igeo-ya?
So this is all the studying you did?

literally, “Is this what you did, saying it was studying?”

나라고 별 수 있나.

Used to disparage the noun, or to suggest that it is nothing special.

사람이라고는 아무도 없었다.

In a negative construction, used with an emphatic sense before the topic marker 는 (-neun).

Used other than figuratively or idiomatically: see 이다 (-ida), 라 (-ra), 다고 (-dago).


이다

For the Korean copula ("to be"), see the entry at 이다 (-ida).


-라

From Middle Korean 라〮 (Yale: -lá), lenited form of 다〮 (Yale: -tá).
It is not clear why lenition only occurred at these specific environments. Vovin speculates that lenition occurred at intervocalic environments except at verbal morpheme boundaries when preceded by a "minimal vowel": ㅡ (Yale: u-) or ㆍ (Yale: o-). Hence lenition occurred after 더 (Yale: -te-), but not after ᄂᆞ (Yale: -no-). To explain why only the stem 이 (Yale: -ì-, “to be”, copula) triggers lenition and not the many Class H! verbs, all of whose stems end with a non-minimal vowel, Vovin suggests that all Class H! verbs were originally once closed-syllable stems with nasal or liquid finals. However, Vovin's arguments remain for the most part speculative.

Short for 라고 (-rago, post-vowel form of 이라고 (-irago, direct quotation marker)).


-라

누구라 없니?

2007, 황대화 [hwangdaehwa], 황해도 방언 연구 [hwanghaedo bang'eon yeon'gu, Study of the Hwanghae dialect], (북한) 강원도 이천군 [(bukhan) gang'wondo icheon'gun]: 한국 문화사, →ISBN:

(Hwanghae, Pyongan, Northern Gangwon) suffix used after words ending with a vowel.


-들

First attested in the Worin seokbo (月印釋譜 / 월인석보), 1459, as Middle Korean ᄃᆞᆶ〮 (Yale: -tólh). Beyond Korean, most likely related to Japanese 達(たち) (tachi, pluralizing morpheme); if so, the ancestral form may have been */tatVk/ or similar.

ko-etym-native

사람들

기억들

빨리들 하세요. (when addressing multiple people)

그 사람들은 가족이에요. ― Geu saramdeureun gajogieyo. ― Those people are family.

An auxiliary plural particle with an emphasis on the individuality of each item. See Usage notes for more.


-면서

From Middle Korean 며〮셔〮 (Yale: -myésyé). See the main entry for more.

Short for 고 하면서 (-go ha-myeonseo, “while saying that...; even though [one] says that...”).

고 하면서

여기 와본 적 처음이라면서 길을 어떻게 다 알아?

How do you know the all roads even though you said it's your first time here?

Yeogi wa-bon jeok cheo'eum-ira-myeonseo gir-eul eotteoke da ara?

even though [one] said...; attaches to mood-marking verb-final suffixes of the "plain style".

너 친구가 서울대에 붙었다면서.

I heard your friend was accepted into Seoul University.

Neo chin'gu-ga seouldae-e buteotda-myeonseo.

과자는 왜 먹냐? 살찐다면서.

Why are you snacking? You said they make you fat.

Gwaja-neun wae meongnya? Saljjinda-myeonseo.

나도 거기 갔냐면서.

In the intimate style, used to confirm something one has heard or to sarcastically point out someone's hypocrisy; attaches to mood-marking verb-final suffixes of the "plain style".


-이라우

Shortened from 이라(고) 하오 (-i-ra(-go) ha-o, “[one] says that it is...”, in the semi-formal style).

차말로 좋아라우[…]멋이라우?[…]차말로 좋게 해 놨등구만이라우.[…]여그서 멋 하신게라우?

1998, 이기갑 [igigap], “전남 방언의 상대높임법 [jeonnam bang'eonui sangdaenopimbeop, The addressee honorifics of the southern Jeolla dialect]”, in Hangul, volume 240, pages 355—396:

I'm really pleased. […] What is this? […] They've done it really well. […] What are you doing here?

polite style
w:Korean speech levels#Haeyo-che

(Jeolla dialect) Attached to nouns, or to the verb-final suffixes of the intimate style, to form the polite style (i.e. adding politeness).


-예

그 내나, 우리 여, 임씨 문중에 딸인데예.

2015 January 27, 노정숙 [nojeongsuk], “ko: 늪에 빠진 주인의 목숨을 구하고 죽은 개”, in 한국구비문학대계 [han'gukgubimunhakdaegye], 경상남도 창녕군 이방면 [gyeongsangnamdo changnyeonggun ibangmyeon]:

After all, [the bride] came from the Im family.

Gyeongsang form of 요 (-yo, non-formal politeness-marking particle).


-요

First widely attested in late eighteenth- and nineteenth-century novels intended for popular consumption. Stems from a contraction of 이오 (-i-o, “it is that...”), from 이 (-i-, “to be”, copula) + 오 (-o, declarative verbal suffix of the semi-formal speech level). The suffix 오 (-o) itself goes back to Middle Korean ᅀᆞᇦ〯 (-zǒW-, object honorific verbal suffix), though the exact derivation is unclear, and ultimately to Old Korean 白 (*SOLP-, “to inform a superior”). Compare Kapampangan yó, yu (“plural polite form, emphasis particle”). Compare also Jeju 마씀 (-masseum) which has the same function.

der

often considered the archetypal pronunciation

해요.

안녕하세요.

제가 도와드리지요.

여행 준비는 다 했나요?

Have you finished preparing for your trip?

intimate-style
w:Korean speech levels#Hae-che

blunt-style
w:Korean speech levels#Hage-che

A particle attached to intimate-style verbs and adjective endings and some blunt-style endings to form the polite style, the usual speech level for polite but not extremely formal conversation, e.g. by a student to a teacher, a child to a parent, or between colleagues.

왜요?

어제 눈이 오던데요……

어머니는요 동생한테만요 화를 내셨어요.

Mom only got angry at my younger sibling.

Eomeoni-neun-yo dongsaeng-hante-man-yo hwa-reul nae-syeoss-eoyo.

뭘 먹었나요? — 라면요.

polite style.
w:Korean speech levels#Haeyo-che

A particle attached to substantives, adverbs, or non-sentence-final endings to show respect to the listener in the polite style.


-더

Shortened from 이더 (-ideo), variant pronunciation of 이다 (-ida, politeness-attaching particle), grammaticalized from the copula 이다 (-ida, “to be”).

김서방더, 오데 가요?

Mr. Kim, where are you going? (from Lee 2005, p. 225)

(Changwon Gyeongsang) A vocative case marker showing respect for the addressee without conceding one's own social status.


-에요

제 친구에요.

할 거에요.

(proscribed) Contraction of 이에요 (-i-eyo).


-ㅂ

Sound-symbolic; compare English yep and nope, French ouaip (“yep”), Spanish sip (“yep”).

넵, 그럴게요!

저의 연인을 소개할게욥

2017, “10년된 저의 연인을 소개할게욥 [10nyeondoen jeoui yeonineul sogaehalgeyop]”, in YouTube:

I'll be introducing my significant other!

(colloquial) a sentence-final particle connoting certitude, most common among younger speakers


-가

Uncertain. It was not attested in texts from the 15ᵗʰ century, and its first attestation has been variously placed at 1572 CE or mid-17ᵗʰ century.
Click for etymological details
It was initially of limited distribution and used in a complementary manner to 이 (-i). The development of its usage is as follows:
# Since the mid-17th century: used after nouns ending in -i or -y,
#: e.g. pwuli-ka ("mouth"), nay-ka ("scent"), poy-ka ("boat");
# Since the mid-18th century: used after nouns ending in vowels/semivowels other than -i,
#: e.g. ca-ka ("one who"), soyngswo-ka, nwongso-ka ("farm work");
# During the end of the 18th century: used briefly in the form of double particle -i/yka after nouns ending in vowels/semivowels other than -i,
#: e.g. to-yka ("road"), inkwu-yka ("population"), nwongso-yka ("farm work").
Various theories exist regarding its origin:
# Developed from the interrogative particle 가 (-ga);
# Developed from the vocative case particle 하 (-ha)/아 (-a);
# Developed from the connective ending 다가 (-daga);
# Developed from the verb 가 (ga-, “to go”);
# Borrowed from the Japanese nominative particle が (ga).2.

내가 말했잖아.

어디가 좋을까?

의자가 있다. ― Uija-ga itda. ― There is a chair.

Synonym of 이 (-i, nominative case marker) used after words ending with a vowel.


-가

From Middle Korean 가〮 (Yale: -ká), from Old Korean 去 (*-ka). In Old and Middle Korean, the word was not a suffix but an interrogative particle for yes-no questions, combining directly with nouns and taking the Old Korean nominalized forms of verbs, whence ㄴ가 (-n'ga) and ㄹ까 (-lkka).
In the standard Seoul dialect of the language, the suffix is no longer used in isolation (nor reserved for yes-no questions); see "Related terms" below.

이기 니 이름가?

See above; sometimes appended directly to the noun, as in older forms of the language.


-가

From Old Korean 果 (*-kwa). Unlike Middle Korean and most other dialects, Yukjin was apparently unaffected by the lenition to 와 (-wa) in intervocalic environments. Until the early twentieth century, the pronunciation was still 과 (-gwa), but it has since shifted.

Yukjin and Russia form of 과 (-gwa, “with, and”)

한 동네에 여자가 남자 살았지. (Koryo-mar, Shymkent)
Han dongne-e yeojaga namja saratji.
In a neighbourhood lived a lady with a man.
Excerpt of the folk tale, 'The Foolish Husband who Caught a Bear with his Wife's Wisdom'.

내가 너느 야댜하는 쳐지다.

2019, 곽충구 [gwakchunggu, Kwak Chung-gu], 두만강 유역의 조선어 방언 사전 [duman'gang yuyeogui joseoneo bang'eon sajeon, Dictionary of Korean Dialects of the Tumen River Area], volume II, Taehaksa, →ISBN, page 3717:

You and I are in a relationship where we don't use honorifics.

슬기가 여끼 따다.

Yukjin and Russia form of 와 (-wa, “with, and”)

동미가 말했지.

네가 무스거 물어보더야?


-도

Of native Korean origin, from Middle Korean 도〮 (Yale: -twó), from Old Korean 刀 (*-two).

나도!

하나도 없어.


-마다

First attested in the Hunminjeong'eum eonhae (訓民正音諺解本 / 훈민정음언해본), 1446, as Middle Korean 마〯다〮 (Yale: -mǎtá).

ko-etym-native

날마다

밤이면 밤마다


-구

Dialectal and slang form of 고 (-go, “that”, quotative particle).


-해

Unknown. Compare Mandarin 好 (hǎo, “good, okay”). Japanese has アル (aru).

(ethnic slur) Attached to the end of sentences to imitate Chinese people speaking Korean.


-이야

From Middle Korean 이〮ᅀᅡ〮 (Yale: -í-zá), from Old Korean 是沙 (*-i-sa).
In Old Korean, 沙 (*-sa) was actually a verbal suffix, so the first element 是 (*-i-) > 이〮 (Yale: -í-) is simply the copula 이다 (-ida, “to be”).
After Middle Korean /z/ was lost, /-j-/ was introduced to break hiatus. Gyeongsang Korean 이사 (-isa) preserves the original pronunciation.

그야 모를 일이지.

As for that, it's something [we] can't know.

저야 다쳐도 괜찮으니 아이만 구해주세요.

As for me, it's okay if I get hurt; please, just save the kid.

Jeo-ya dacheodo gwaenchaneuni ai-man guhae-juseyo.

이 정도쯤이야 식은 죽 먹기지!

I jeongdo-jjeum-iya sigeun juk meokgi-ji!

사람이야 희노애락이 있지만 천지신명도 그렇겠소?

As for we humans, we are pleased or angry, sad or happy; but would the myriad spirits be like us?

Saram-iya huinoaerag-i itjiman cheonjisinmyeong-do geureoketso?

as for; adds emphasis to the topic of the sentence.


-잉

(Jeolla dialect) Alternative form of 이 (-i, word-final particle denoting certitude and/or emotional intimacy).


-야

From Middle Korean 야〮 (Yale: -yá); see the main entry for more.

현우야, 너가 물 엎질렀어?

나무야, 넌 이름이 뭐니?

Post-vowel allomorphic form of 아 (-a, “hey”, vocative particle).


-야

From Middle Korean ᅀᅡ〮 (Yale: -zá), from Old Korean 沙 (*-sa); see the main entry for more.

Post-vowel allomorphic form of 이야 (-iya, emphatic particle).


-여

From Middle Korean ㅣ여〮 (Yale: -yyé), 여〮 (Yale: -yé), from Old Korean 亦 (*-ye), 也 (*-ye). See the main entry for more.

눈보라에도 푸르른 소나무여

O pine tree, green despite the snowstorm

Post-vowel allomorphic form of 이여 (-iyeo, “O”, exclamatory vocative particle).


-여

네 알겠어여 ㅎㅎ ― ne al-gess-eo-yeo hh ― Yes okay ^^

Pronunciation spelling
pronunciation spelling

Pronunciation spelling of 요 (-yo, politeness-adding particle), representing colloquial Korean.


-여

Alternative form of 이여 (-iyeo, “and”, dialectal connective particle for enumerating nouns).


-다

The contraction may be first attested only in the early twentieth century, such as in the 1922 literary journal Baekjo.

Contraction of 다가 (-daga, emphatic marker).


-엔

Contraction of 에는 (-e-neun), or alternatively analyzable as the synonymous 에 (-e) + ㄴ (-n).


-짱

Borrowed from Japanese ちゃん (chan, diminutive suffix).

bor+

(Japan, familiar or childish) title affixed to people's names


-만

First attested in the Seokbo sangjeol (釋譜詳節 / 석보상절), 1447, as Middle Korean 만〮 (Yale: -mán).

ko-etym-native

나는 너만을 사랑해.


-의

From Middle Korean 의〮 (Yale: -úy), from Old Korean 衣 (*-uy).

한국의 수도는 서울이다.

나의 책

’s. genitive case marker, indicating that the previous word has possession of the next one. It functions like the English suffix “-’s”, or like the word “of” with the position of possessor and possessee switched.


-이랑

삼촌이랑 함께 갔어요.

내 동생은 수박이랑 사과를 좋아해요.

My younger sibling likes watermelon and apple.

Nae dongsaeng-eun subag-irang sagwa-reul joahaeyo.

and, with: the comitative particle denoting accompaniment or connection of two or more items.

내 형이랑 달리, 나는 축구가 너무 좋아요.

Unlike my brother, I like football very much.

Nae hyeong-irang dalli, na-neun chukgu-ga neomu jo-a-yo.

숙진이는 아빠랑 닮았네.

a particle denoting similarity or difference with the subject.


-랑

너랑 나랑은 영원한 친구지.

Neorang narang-eun yeong'wonhan chin'gu-ji.

나랑 같이 갈래?

Post-vowel allomorphic form of 이랑 (-irang).


-이

From Middle Korean 이〮 (-í, subject marker), from Old Korean 是, 利 (*-i, subject marker). Old Korean sources also use 亦 (*-yek?) and 弋只 (*-ik) as a subject marker. It is possible that these are the more conservative forms, and that there was a shift from 亦 (*-yek?) > 弋只 (*-ik) > 是 (*-i). However, others have considered 弋只 (*-ik)) to be a suffixed form of -i. The forms with *-k are attested later than simple *-i.
John Whitman and Yuko Yanagida speculate an ultimate connection either to the demonstrative ("this") or to the bound noun ("person").
Old Japanese い (i, emphatic particle) is believed to be a borrowing from Korean into Japanese.

이 치킨이 맛있다.
I chikin-i masitda.
This chicken is delicious.
Audio: (file)

For non-honorific nouns ending in consonants, the nominative case particle marking it as the subject of a verb or adjective; see also Usage Notes.

물이 얼음이 되었다.
Mur-i eoreum-i doeeotda.
The water became ice.
Audio (South Korea): (file)

걔는 정상이 아니다.
Gyae-neun jeongsang-i anida.
He is not normal.
Audio (South Korea): (file)

For nouns ending in consonants, a particle marking it as the grammatical complement of the verbal stems 되다 (doeda, “to become”) and 아니다 (anida, “to not be”).

쟨 짜장면이 먹고 싶다는데?
Jaen jjajangmyeon-i meokgo sipda-neunde?
She says she wants to eat jajangmyeon.
Audio (South Korea): (file)

For nouns ending in consonants, an emphatic particle used to mark the object of desire in a construction with the auxiliary verb 싶다 (sipda, “to want”).


-이

Cognate to Standard Seoul Korean 응 (eung, “yes, yeah, yep”, informal affirmative interjection). The interjection grammaticalized into a particle.

종철아! 잘 가그래이... 이 아부지는 아무 할 말이 없대이. (Gyeongsang dialect, Busan)
Jongcheor-a! Jal ga-geurae-i... I abuji-neun amu hal mar-i eopdae-i.
Go on to a good place, Cheol, my son. There’s nothing more I can say.

This is a quote from the father of Bak Jong-cheol, a university student tortured to death by the junta in 1987, during his son's funeral. It became a slogan of the June Struggle that toppled the regime that year. The translation is from a 2018 article in The Korea Herald.

(southern dialectal, including Gyeongsang, Gangwon, Jeolla dialect) A word-final particle denoting certitude and emotional intimacy.


-ㅇ

감사합니당

안녕하세용

(colloquial) a sentence-final particle associated with cuteness or affection, particularly common among young people and especially young women


-로

From Middle Korean 로〮 (Yale: -lwó), from Old Korean 留 (*-lwo).

기차가 어디로 갑니까? ― Gichaga eodiro gamnikka? ― Where the train is going to go to?

Post-vowel and post-ㄹ (l) allomorphic form of 으로 (-euro, “by, with”).


-보다

From 보 (bo, “to see”) + 다가 (-daga, while; after).
Grammaticalization pathway: "after seeing [noun A], [noun B] is [adjective]" > "[noun B] is more [adjective] than [noun A]". This has occurred in other languages; compare Tibetan བལྟས་ན (bltas na).
First attested in the mid-eighteenth century, displacing previous 도곤 (Yale: twokwon) by the nineteenth century.

suffix

내가 걔보다 키가 크다.

내가 걔보다 키가 더 크다.

지리산보다 한라산이 더 높다.
Jirisan-boda hallasan-i deo nopda.
Mount Halla is taller than Mount Jiri.
Audio: (file)

어제보다 오늘이 손님이 더 많다.
Eoje-boda oneur-i sonnim-i deo manta.
There are more customers today than yesterday.
Audio: (file)

than; used to form comparisons, optionally with 더 (deo, “more”)


-에

From Middle Korean 에〮/애〮 (Yale: -éy/áy, locative particle), from Old Korean 良中 (*-akuy, *-ahuy, locative particle), compound of 良 (*-a, locative particle) + 中 (*-kuy, locative particle).

inh

어디에 가요?

저는 종이에 사자를 그리고 있어요. ― Jeoneun jong'ie sajareul geurigo isseoyo. ― I am painting a lion on a paper.


하면

Of native Korean origin. From 하 (ha-, “to say”) + 면 (-myeon, “if”): "if one speaks [about]..."

생선 하면 고등어지.

영국 하면 해리포터지.

When I think of the United Kingdom, Harry Potter comes to mind.

친구 하면 민지가 제일 먼저 떠오른다.

When I think of friends, Minji is the first to come to mind.

Chin'gu hamyeon Minji-ga jeil meonjeo tteooreunda.

이 정도 각오도 안 했습니까? 실패하면 반역, 성공하면 혁명 아입니까!

2023, Kim Sung-su, 12.12: The Day, episode 7, spoken by Chun Doo-gwang (Hwang Jung-min)

How come you are not determined to this extent? If it fails, it's treason; if it succeeds, it's revolution, isn't it?

i jeongdo gago-do an haetseumnikka? silpaehamyeon banyeok, seonggonghamyeon hyeongmyeong aimnikka!

Attaches to a noun to introduce an exemplar, most desirable example, or closely associated fact about said noun.


-뿐

그뿐


-이라도

대만을 못 가니까 부산이라도 가야지.

Since we can't go to Taiwan, we should at least go to Busan.

Daeman-eul mot ganikka Busan-irado ga-yaji.

병원이라도 가봐.

even, at least; marks that something is acceptable or that one must make do with it, but that it is not totally desirable.

하나라도 없으면 안 된다.

고작 하룻밤이라도 같이 있어줘.

Even if it's just one night, stay with me.

even; used for emphasis after a limited time or quantity.

전쟁이라도 나면 어디로 피난 가지?

If a war breaks out, where should we escape to?

Jeonjaeng-irado namyeon eodi-ro pinan gaji?

혹시라도 내가 잘못한 게 있어?

Is there just maybe something I did wrong?

Used in conditionals to add greater doubt, attaching either to an adverb expressing doubt or to the thing whose existence is being supposed.

귀신이라도 본 것처럼 소스라쳤다.

She shuddered in fright, as if she had seen a ghost.

Gwisin-irado bon geot-cheoreom soseuracheotda.

Used for emphasis in constructions involving 은 듯 (-eun deut, “as if”) or 은 것처럼 (-eun geot-cheoreom, “as if”).

살인마라도 법에 따라 처벌되어야 한다.
Sarinma-rado beob-e ttara cheobeol-doeeoya handa.
Even a mass murderer should be punished according to the law.

literally, “Even if he is a mass murderer, he should be punished according to the law.”

뱀이라도 죽이면 안 된다.
Baem-i-rado jugimyeon an doenda.
You should not kill even a snake.

literally, “Even if [something] is a snake, it should not be killed.”

Used other than figuratively or idiomatically: see 이다 (-ida), 라도 (-rado).


-인데

From 있는 데 (in-neun de, “the place where one is”), per the Dictionary of southern Gyeongsang varieties. Also listed to be used in the Gangwon dialect in 우리말샘.

회령 창효란 데서는 영채를 길러 그래가서 김일성인데 이거 올려 보내 특산물로.

2015 September 15, 김항나 [gimhangna], “북한학 전공 학생이 함경도 청년 집에서 같이 살아봤습니다. [bukhanhak jeon'gong haksaeng'i hamgyeongdo cheongnyeon jibeseo gachi sarabwatseumnida.]”, in KBS [KBS], 함경남도 북청군 [hamgyeongnamdo bukcheonggun]

In a place called Changhyo in Hoeryong they cultivate garden cress so they send it to Kim Il Sung as a regional speciality.
Although the speaker comes from coastal South Hamgyong Province, as she was married to a man from the Hoeryong area, and lived in the city for a long while, it is possible that certain features of her speech may not be reflective of the dialect in the place of her origin.

Hoeryeong changhyoran de-seo-neun yeongchae-reul gilleo geuraegaseo gimilseong'inde igeo ollyeo bonae teuksanmul-lo.


-인데

Used other than figuratively or idiomatically: see 이다 (-ida), 은데 (-eunde).


-같이

형제같이 사이가 좋다.

매일같이 지각한다.

새벽같이 산에 오르다

to climb the mountain the moment dawn breaks


-와

From Middle Korean 와〮 (Yale: -Gwá), allomorph of 과〮 (Yale: -kwá) following a vowel, produced by intervocalic lenition of /k/ to /ɣ/ from Old Korean 果 (*-kwa).

나와 나타샤와 흰 당나귀


-과

From Middle Korean 과〮 (Yale: -kwá), from Old Korean 果 (*-kwa).

책과 연필

가족과 같이 가세요?

미군은 아프간에서 탈레반과 싸웠다.

U.S. forces fought with the Taliban in Afghanistan.

Migun-eun Apeugan-eseo Talleban-'gwa ssawotda.

나는 너와 다르다.

그의 성격은 불과 같다.


-레

네레 어지께 그러디 아난?

1998, 김영배 [gimyeongbae], “서북방언 [seobukbang'eon]”, in 새국어생활 [saegugeosaenghwal], volume 8, number 4, National Institute of the Korean Language, page 60:

(Pyongan) suffix used after words ending with a vowel.


-덜

Pronunciation spelling of 들 (-deul, plural marker), representing Gyeongsang Korean.

들

그런 할아버지덜두 있구, 그래서 우리 어머니는 그 젊어서 출가했어야,

2012 February 1, 박선한 [bakseonhan], “박참봉 할아버지의 인정 [bakchambong harabeojiui injeong]”, in 한국구비문학대계 [han'gukgubimunhakdaegye], 충청남도 홍성군 서부면 [chungcheongnamdo hongseonggun seobumyeon]:

Because they were those kind of old men, our mother left the house since she was young.

Chungcheong, Gangwon, and Jeolla dialect form of 들 (-deul, plural marker)


-하부라

Unknown. Sometimes connected to 어불다 (eobulda, dialectal form of 어우르다 (eoureuda, “to incorporate; to bring together”)), but this does not explain the initial consonant. Jeju 알롸 (-allwa) is from the same root.

(dialectal) even; expresses greater intensity than 도 (-do).


-으로서

국민으로서 반대합니다.


-로서

Post-vowel and post-ㄹ (l) allomorphic form of 으로서 (-euroseo).


-유

Of Native Korean origin, related to standard Korean and more common 요 (-yo).

고린장, 그전엔 고린장했잖유.

2012 February 28, 최계자 [choegyeja], “고려장이 없어진 유래 [goryeojang'i eopseojin yurae]”, in 한국구비문학대계 [han'gukgubimunhakdaegye], 충청남도 홍성군 결성면 [chungcheongnamdo hongseonggun gyeolseongmyeon]:

Back then didn't they practice Goryeo-jang.

Chungcheong form of 요 (-yo, “A particle attached to intimate-style verbs and adjectives to form the polite style”).


-까정

[k͈a̠d͡ʑʌ̹ŋ]

From Middle Korean ᄭᆞ자ᇰ〮 (Yale: skòcáng). Related to standard Korean 까지 (kkaji).

목포에서 전쟁 끝나고 한 10년 쌀장시를 크게 하다가 인천까정 올라온 것도 다 영감이 바람 피워가꼬 그렇게 된거여.

2007 March 5, 강길재 [ganggiljae], “4.3민주행쟁겪고, 목포에서 6.25치르고... "지금은 전쟁없응께 살기 좋아" [4.3minjuhaengjaenggyeokgo, mokpo'eseo 6.25chireugo... jigeumeun jeonjaeng'eopseungkke salgi joa"]”, in 형과니의삶 [hyeonggwaniuisam], 전라남도 목포시 [jeollanamdo mokposi], archived from the original on 2022-01-13:

Because of my husband's adultery, I had to sell rice in Mokpo for 10 years after the war, until I moved up to Incheon.

Though originally from Jeju island, the interviewee moved to Mokpo as a teenager and lived there until adulthood, and thus her spoken Korean is from the Mokpo dialect.

(dialectal, including Gangwon, Gyeongsang, Jeolla dialect, Chungcheong) until, by


-버텀

지끔으로버텀 1500년 전에 신라 시대 화랑인 영랑, 술랑, 삼조, 남석 등이...

1981 April 17, 유만석 [yumanseok], “영랑호와 달마봉 유래 [yeongnanghowa dalmabong yurae]”, in 한국구비문학대계 [han'gukgubimunhakdaegye], 강원도 속초시 설악동 [gang'wondo sokchosi seorakdong]:

About 1500 years ago from now, the Shilla Hwarangs Yeongrang, Sulrang, Samjo, Namseok, and others...

Pyongan, Hwanghae, Hamgyong, and Gangwon form of 부터 (-buteo, “from, a particle used to denote when or where a certain action or even will occur, a particle used to illustrate an order of a series of actions.”)


-느

는 (-neun). Compare 으 (-eu), which is used in the same areas in place of the standard Korean 을 (-eul)

통일돼서 고향 산천 한번 가느 게 소워이니까니...

2013 June 21, 김진국 [gimjin'guk], “나의 살던 고향은 [naui saldeon gohyang'eun]”, in KBS 고향극장 [KBS gohyanggeukjang], 함경남도 북청군 [hamgyeongnamdo bukcheonggun]

Because our dreams are to be able to go to our hometown's once again when reunification happens...
As the speaker is a Korean War refugee from the 1950s who has since lived in Sokcho, it is probable that his speech does not represent the traditional dialect of the region.

Tong'ildwae-seo gohyang sancheon hanbeon ganeu ge sowoi-nikkani...

(Hamgyong, Yukjin, Russia) Alternative form of 는 (-neun, “post vowel allomorph of 은 (-eun)”)


-슈

Of Native Korean origin, compare Chungcheong 세유 (-seyu), as well as standard Korean 세요 (-seyo), 으세요 (-euseyo).

걱정마슈, 걱정말구 일어나서 이 뱁이나 자슈

1980 March 15, 오영석 [oyeongseok], “나뭇군과 선녀 [namutgun'gwa seonnyeo]”, in 한국구비문학대계 [han'gukgubimunhakdaegye], 충청남도 대덕군 신탄진읍 (현 대전광역시 대덕구 신탄진동) [chungcheongnamdo daedeokgun sintanjineup (hyeon daejeon'gwang'yeoksi daedeokgu sintanjindong)]:

Don't worry, instead of worrying get up and eat some rice.

Chungcheong form of 세요 (-seyo, “A non-past honorific informal polite style suffix expressing declarative, interrogative, imperative, and suggestive moods depending on context”).


-함줄라

함줄라 (canonical)
-hamjulla (romanization)

Probably related to 하부라 (-habura). Compare Jeolla dialectal 한질라 (-hanjilla), Pyongan dialectal 암불라 (-ambulla).

늙언이, 아이덜함줄라 인민군댈 지원했시다.

2007, 황대화 [hwangdaehwa], 황해도 방언 연구 [hwanghaedo bang'eon yeon'gu, Study of the Hwanghae dialect], 한국 문화사, →ISBN:

The eldery, even the children aided the North Korean people's army.


-꺼지

요기서 고향꺼지는 차루 간담 몇 분도 안 걸리지.

2021 March 25, 엄택규 [eomtaekgyu], “큰 나무같던 아버지 그립습니다 [keun namugatdeon abeoji geuripseumnida]”, in 나의 살던 고향은 [naui saldeon gohyang'eun], 강원도 고성군 수동면 [gang'wondo goseonggun sudongmyeon]:

From here until my hometown if you went by car it wouldn barely take a few minutes.

The speaker's hometown is a part of Gangwon-do that was cleared of its residents after the Korean war due to being located within the DMZ. As he moved to a neighboring township, it is likely that the dialects of both areas is near identical.

(Gangwon, Gyeongsang, Seoul, Jeolla dialect, Chungcheong, Hwanghae) Alternative form of 까지 (-kkaji, “until, by”)


-한데

제일 바라구 싶은 것이 아부지 어마니한데, 따뜻한 고기 백반을.. 그리구 소주 한잔을 대접하는 것입니다.

2021 May 18, 김원진 [gimwonjin], “전쟁 전 임진강을 맨몸으로 건너 월남한 사연 [jeonjaeng jeon imjin'gang'eul maenmomeuro geonneo wollamhan sayeon]”, in 나의 살던 고향은 [naui saldeon gohyang'eun], 평안남도 강서군 성태면 [pyeong'annamdo gangseogun seongtaemyeon]:

The thing I wish for the most is to give a warm meal with meat dishes to my father and mother.. and treat them with a glass of soju.

(Pyongan) Alternative form of 한테 (-hante, “to, at, for”)


-으루

인조대왕 때 임진왜란이 해가지구, 인조 왕이 어디루 피란을 가냐믄 남한산성으루 피란을 갔거든.

2013 February 1, 김규선 [gimgyuseon], “가락골 전충묘 [garakgol jeonchungmyo]”, in 한국구비문학대계 [han'gukgubimunhakdaegye], 경기도 광명시 학온동 [gyeonggido gwangmyeongsi hagondong]:

Since it was during the reign of king Injo that the Imjin War occurred, [if you were wondering] where king Injo fled, he fled to the Namhansanseong fortress.

에이 뭐 인제 애를 둘씩이나 낳구 뭐 했으니, 천상으루 안 올라 가겠지?

1981 July 19, 진병두 [jinbyeongdu], “신부 시귀의 대귀 [sinbu sigwiui daegwi]”, in 한국구비문학대계 [han'gukgubimunhakdaegye], 강원도 횡성군 갑천면 [gang'wondo hoengseonggun gapcheonmyeon]:

Hey, because she gave birth to two children that doesn't mean she'll die? (literally: go to heaven)

(Chungcheong, Seoul, Hwanghae, Jeolla dialect, Yeongseo Gangwon, Yukjin, Russia) Dialectal form of 으로 (-euro, “to, toward”)

그러니께 가서 문구녁으루 들여다 보믄은 손꼬락으루 폭 찔르니께 고만 도망갔대유.

1980 June 22, 맹언순 [maeng'eonsun], “도둑잡은 얘기 [dodukjabeun yaegi]”, in 한국구비문학대계 [han'gukgubimunhakdaegye], 충청남도 당진시 고대면 [chungcheongnamdo dangjinsi godaemyeon]:

So if you lead them into the hole in the door, prick one of their fingers then they'll just run away.

(Chungcheong, Seoul, Hwanghae, Jeolla dialect, Yeongseo Gangwon, Yukjin, Russia) Dialectal form of 으로 (-euro, “into”)

내가 손톱으루 한 번 톡 튕기먼 죽어."

1983 January 17, 최관옥 [choegwanok], “정저쿵 삐쭉 곰배불알 털 [jeongjeokung ppijjuk gombaebural teol]”, in 한국구비문학대계 [han'gukgubimunhakdaegye], 충청남도 공주시 유구읍 [chungcheongnamdo gongjusi yugueup]:

If I just lightly flicked you using my fingertip, you'd die.

(Chungcheong, Seoul, Hwanghae, Jeolla dialect, Yeongseo Gangwon, Yukjin, Russia) Dialectal form of 으로 (-euro, “using, out of”)

그 전에 이제 거기 시환병으루... 사람이 그냥 막 죽어나가니까...

2010 July 19, 이병두 [ibyeongdu], “돌림병을 막으려고 세운 장승 [dollimbyeong'eul mageuryeogo se'un jangseung]”, in 한국구비문학대계 [han'gukgubimunhakdaegye], 충청북도 음성군 삼성면 [chungcheongbukdo eumseonggun samseongmyeon]:

Because in the past... so many people were dying from cold-like diseases...

(Chungcheong, Seoul, Hwanghae, Jeolla dialect, Yeongseo Gangwon, Yukjin, Russia) Dialectal form of 으로 (-euro, “due to, from”)

(Chungcheong, Seoul, Hwanghae, Jeolla dialect, Yeongseo Gangwon, Yukjin, Russia) Dialectal form of 으로 (-euro, “as, as being”)

(Chungcheong, Seoul, Hwanghae, Jeolla dialect, Yeongseo Gangwon, Yukjin, Russia) Dialectal form of 으로 (-euro, “as of”)


-으

그 섣달으 그 사람들 인제 고공살이 했다 말이오.

1979, 한순식 [hansunsik], “노젓는소리 만선소리 [nojeonneunsori - manseonsori]”, in MBC 한국민요대전 음반자료 사이트 [MBC han'gungminyodaejeon eumbanjaryo saiteu], 함경남도 단천시 전진동 [hamgyeongnamdo dancheonsi jeonjindong]:

On the twelfth month those people went off to be farmhands.

Gangwon, Hamgyong, Yukjin, and Russia form of 을 (-eul, “the accusative particle, direct object marker”)


-하부래

Related to 하부라 (-habura). See main page for more information.

그거 동지 딸년 그거 하날 그거하부래 죽이 되는가?

1980 May 29, 이문구 [imun'gu], “비란의 이야기 [biranui iyagi]”, in 한국구비문학대계 [han'gukgubimunhakdaegye], 경상남도 거창군 북상면 [gyeongsangnamdo geochanggun buksangmyeon]:


-더니

(it used to be that ...) but now/then, and now/then


-할채

See 하부라 (-habura). Compare synonymous 할차 (halcha).

이눔 때미... 밥두 궁구... 말할채 팔어 먹었응께, 집이 가걸랑 당장 주리틀어서 틀어서 뒈져...

1980 July 7, 최영종 [choeyeongjong], “눈 감으면 코 베 난다 [nun gameumyeon ko be nanda]”, in 한국구비문학대계 [han'gukgubimunhakdaegye], 충청남도 보령시 주포면 [chungcheongnamdo boryeongsi jupomyeon]:

Because of this bastard... [we] starved... [and] because [he] even sold off our horse, when he goes home I hope his legs get twisted and [he] dies.

(Chungcheong, Jeolla dialect) even; expresses greater intensity than 도 (-do).


-한테서

한테서 (canonical)
-hanteseo (romanization)


-야말로

이야말로 -이야말로#Korean

Post-vowel allomorphic form of 이야말로 (-iyamallo, “indeed is”)


-이야말로

이야말로 (canonical)
-iyamallo (romanization)

Compound of 이야 (-iya, emphasizing particle) + 말 (mal, “speech, words”) + 로 (-ro, “as being”, particle indicating state or manner).

com+

-로<t:as being><pos:particle indicating state or manner>

예술이야말로 인간을 높이는 길이다.

Art is indeed the way to elevate human beings.

Yesur-iyamallo in'gan-eul nopi-neun gir-ida.

(after a consonant-ending substantive or adverb) Topic marker expressing emphasis and confirmation: indeed is, really is, truly is


으느

See main entry. Compare eastern dialectal 으 (-eu).

Hamgyong and Yukjin form of 은 (-eun, “topical marker”)


-더라도

아무리 목석 같은 사내더라도 눈물 한 방울쯤이야 흘리겠지.

No matter how hard a man is, he will probably shed at least one tear.

Amuri mokseok gateun sanae-deorado nunmul han bang'ul-jjeum-iya heulli-get-ji.