epicene

Which ſort of Words the Grammarians call Epicœnes (ἐπίκοινος from κοινός common), becauſe they under one Gender, which they commonly take from the Termination, comprehend both Kinds; [...] [Marcus Terentius] Varro, after the example of Ennius and [Quinus] Fabius Pictor, has uſed ſome of theſe Epicœnes in both Genders, e.g. uſing the maſculin lupus (a wolf) as feminin.

1712, Michael Maittaire [i.e., Michel Maittaire], “The Heterology of Words”, in The English Grammar: Or, An Essay on the Art of Grammar, Applied to and Exemplified in the English Tongue, London: Printed for W[illiam] B[owyer] for H. Clements […], →OCLC, page 129:

Ward, in his improvement of [William] Lily's Latin Grammar, reckons Seven Genders, viz. Maſculine, Feminine, Neuter, Common of two, Common of three, Doubtful, and Epicene; in his improvement of the Greek Grammar, he names only Four, viz. Maſculine, Feminine, Neuter, and Common; injudiciouſly, I think, omitting the Epicene. But the Engliſh language, according to my ideas of it, has ſcarce more than Two Genders, viz. Maſculine and Feminine; [...] I ſhall mention my doubts of the exiſtence of the Three others, viz. Neuter, Common, and Epicene; though I am pretty ſtrongly perſuaded, that the Nouns, with either are, or may be reputed to be of the Three latter, totally exclude all ideas of Sex in this language, and, therefore, cannot with ſtrict property be claſſed as to Gender; [...]

1782, B[enjamin] Webb, An Essay on Education; or, An Address to Parents and Guardians. In Two Parts, Reading, Berkshire: Printed for the author, by Carnan and Smart, →OCLC, part I, pages 12–13:

Consequently, all animate objects which do not have distinctive terms for their male and female beings are epicenes and become masculine or feminine solely by virtue of the addition of gender marker particles denotative of 'male' and 'female' or 'he' and 'she' suffixed to the genderless term. This device of gender distinction, too, is confined to non-human animate beings only.

1989, D. D. Sharma [Devīdatta Śarmā], Tribal Languages of Himachal Pradesh (Studies in Tibeto-Himalayan Languages; 2), volume 1, Delhi: Mittal Publications, →ISBN, page 214:

Some French feminists argue that the neutralization of masculine forms into epicenes actually does a disservice to women, making women even less visible socially and professionally. However, it seems inappropriate for feminists in one linguistic community to comment on the strategies used in other linguistic communities.

1999, Margaret Gibbon, Feminist Perspectives on Language (Feminist Perspectives Series), London, New York, N.Y.: Longman, →ISBN, page 80:

Due to their lexical gender-neutrality, feminine epicenes can easily be used to refer to both sexes despite their fixed feminine grammatical gender. [...] Compared to the cases of feminine male personal nouns mentioned at the beginning of this chapter, feminine epicenes are generally less pejorative in meaning. Many MF languages of the Indo-European family, for example, possess a feminine noun denoting 'person': e.g. Catalan/Italian/Spanish persona, French personne, Portuguese pessoa, Romanian pesoană, German Person, Icelandic persóna, Czech/Polish/Serbian osoba, Slovenian oseba.

2010, Heiko Motschenbacher, “The Discursive Materialisation of Female and Feminine Generics”, in Language, Gender and Sexual Identity: Poststructuralist Perspectives (IMPACT: Studies in Language and Society; 29), Amsterdam, Philadelphia, Pa.: John Benjamins Publishing Company, →ISBN, →ISSN, section 6.4.2 (Grammatically Feminine Epicenes), pages 99–100:

(linguistics) An epicene word; preceded by the: the epicene words of a language as a class.


bundle

From Middle English bundel, from Middle Dutch bondel or Old English byndele, byndelle (“a binding; tying; fastening with bands”); both from Proto-Germanic *bundil-, derivative of *bundą (“bundle”). Compare also bindle, Dutch bundel, German Bündel.

(linguistics, education) A sequence of two or more words that occur in language with high frequency but are not idiomatic; a chunk, cluster, or lexical bundle.

ryväs

linguistics: unidiomatic sequence of words that occurs with high frequency


(lexicography) Sometimes used for secondary stress in glossaries that use ◌́ for primary stress when full pronunciations are not given.


mid

From Middle English mid, midde, from Old English midd (“mid, middle, midway”), from Proto-West Germanic *midi, from Proto-Germanic *midjaz (“mid, middle”, adjective), from Proto-Indo-European *médʰyos (“between, in the middle, middle”). Cognate with Dutch midden (“in the middle”), German Mitte (“center, middle, mean”), Icelandic miður (“middle”, adjective), Latin medius (“middle”, noun and adjective). See also middle. The slang sense may be influenced by terms such as middling and midwit.

cog

(linguistics) Made with a somewhat elevated position of some certain part of the tongue, in relation to the palate; midway between the high and the low; said of certain vowel sounds, such as, [e o ɛ ɔ].


valence

en-noun

valence (countable and uncountable, plural valences)

Sense 1.1 (“combining capacity of an atom”) and sense 3 (“one-dimensional value assigned by a person to an object, situation, or state”) are borrowed from German Valenz + English -ence (suffix meaning ‘having the condition or state of’). Valenz is a clipping of Quantivalenz (“(archaic) valence in chemistry”), from English quantivalence, from Latin quantus (“how much”) + English -i- (interfix inserted between morphemes of Latin origin for ease of pronunciation) + Latin valentia (“bodily strength; health; vigour”) (whence Late Middle English valence (“medicinal preparation made from plants”); ultimately from Proto-Indo-European *h₂welh₁- (“to rule; powerful, strong”)). Quantivalence was coined by F. O. Ward who communicated it to the German chemist August Wilhelm von Hofmann (1818–1892), leading him to coin the German word Quantivalenz. Doublet of value.
Sense 2 (“number of arguments a verb can have”) was formed by analogy to the use of the word in chemistry: see above.

der

In this assignment you will analyze each of the following sentences and determine the valence of the highlighted verb.

(countable, linguistics) The number of arguments that a verb can have, including its subject, ranging from zero to three or, less commonly, four.


soften

en-verb

soften (third-person singular simple present softens, present participle softening, simple past and past participle softened)

softens (present singular third-person)
softening (participle present)
softened (participle past)
softened (past)

From Middle English softenen, softnen, equivalent to soft + -en.

(transitive, intransitive, phonology) To become or make (a consonant) more lenis, to lenite.


floating

(linguistics, of a tone) that is not attached to any consonant or vowel within its morpheme.


alphanumeric

Consisting of, or limited to, letters and/or numbers, especially the characters A to Z (lowercase and uppercase) and 0 to 9.


CP

en-noun

CP (countable and uncountable, plural CPs)

(linguistics) Initialism of complementizer phrase.


terminologist

[T]ranslation practice during training should, at least in part, be organised in projects where each student has the chance to play various roles: that of client, of revisor, of terminologist, of documentation assistant, of free-lancer, of in-house translator working for a translation company, etc.

2005, Christiane Nord, edited by Martha Tennent and Benjamins Translation Library, Training for the New Millennium: Pedagogies for translation and interpreting, page 218:

(translation studies) A person who studies and uses terminology, especially in professional translation project management.


synthetic

en-adj

synthetic (comparative more synthetic, superlative most synthetic)

more synthetic (comparative)
most synthetic (superlative)

From French synthétique, from Ancient Greek συνθετικός (sunthetikós); Equivalent to synthesis + -ic (suffix formation of -tic).

(grammar) Pertaining to the joining of bound morphemes in a word (compare analytic).

համադրական

pertaining to the joining of bound morphemes in a word

(linguistics) Of a language, having a grammar principally dependent on the use of bound morphemes to indicate syntactic relationships (compare analytic).


heteroclite

heteroclite (comparative more heteroclite, superlative most heteroclite)

more heteroclite (comparative)
most heteroclite (superlative)

From Late Latin heteroclitus, from Ancient Greek ἑτερόκλιτος (heteróklitos), from ἕτερος (héteros, “other, another, different”) + κλίνω (klínō, “lean, incline”), the latter from Proto-Indo-European *ḱley-.

der

(grammar) Irregularly declined or inflected.


heteroclite

(grammar) An irregularly declined or inflected word.

(linguistics) A word whose etymological roots come from distinct, different languages or language groups.


pen name

Within a week of King's acknowledging the Bachman pen name, several sources —publishers, book dealers, readers, and fans—had mentioned a number of possible other pseudonyms; obviously, if King admitted to two pen names, John Swithen and Richard Bachmann, there might be others.

1998, Bill Munster, Discovering Dean Koontz, Wildside Press LLC, →ISBN, page 64:

In their time, it was fashionable to sign letters using a pen name. These pen names were borrowed from characters in classical literature.

2002, Jacqueline Ching, Abigail Adams: A Revolutionary Woman, The Rosen Publishing Group, →ISBN, page 19:

A fictitious name used by an author in place of their actual name; a writer's pseudonym.


nom de plume

→ French: nom de plume

Coined in English from French nom (“name”) + de (“of”) + plume (“feather”), by analogy with the borrowed nom de guerre, itself from French nom de guerre.

When King's authorship of Thinner was concealed behind the nom de plume Richard Bachman, the novel sold relatively well.

2018, Robert McParland, Bestseller: A Century of America's Favorite Books, Rowman & Littlefield, →ISBN, page 154:


heteronym

Coined around 1900, either from hetero- (“different”) + -onym (“name”) or from Ancient Greek ἑτερώνυμος (heterṓnumos), or perhaps both.

polyphone

a letter [or combination of letters] that can be pronounced in two or more different ways, such as 長／长 in Chinese, pronounced [cháng] in the sense of ’long’ and [zhǎng] in the sense of ’to grow’

Agape, "astonished" or "wide open," is a heteronym of agape, "Christian love."

(linguistics) A word having the same spelling as another, but a different pronunciation and meaning.

heterònim

word having the same spelling but different pronunciation

azonos alakú, eltérő kiejtésű és jelentésű szó (de)


nid

(linguistics) Initialism of noun inanimate dependent.


conversion

en-noun

conversion (countable and uncountable, plural conversions)

From Middle English conversion, conversioun, borrowed from Anglo-Norman conversion, from Latin conversiō, from convertō.

обръщане

the act of having converted something or someone

המרת דת

to replace one religious faith with another

(linguistics) The process whereby a new word is created without changing the form, often by allowing the word to function as a new part of speech.

szófajváltás

linguistics: the process whereby a new word is created without changing the form


buccal

(linguistics) supralaryngeal, not laryngeal or glottal.


rebus

rebus (plural rebuses or (rare) rebusses or (hypercorrect, rare) rebi)

rebuses (plural)
rebusses (plural rare)
rebi (hypercorrect plural rare)

LL-Q1860 (eng)-I learned some phrases-rebus.wav

Gilles Ménage
Oxford English Dictionary
Prince Andrew, Duke of York
Princess Beatrice
Sarah, Duchess of York

From French rébus (“rebus (puzzle); ambiguity; word used in an oblique sense; unintelligible remark”), or directly from its probable etymon Latin rēbus, the ablative plural of rēs (“object, stuff, thing; issue, matter, subject, topic”), ultimately from Proto-Indo-European *reh₁ís (“goods; wealth”). The connection between the English word and its Latin etymon is unclear.
further etymology
The following possibilities have been suggested, but according to the Oxford English Dictionary are problematic:
* According to the French scholar Gilles Ménage (1613–1692) in Les origines de la langue françoise (The Origins of the French Language, 1650), it is taken from the phrase de rebus quae geruntur (“concerning the things that are taking place”) which was used in 16th-century Picardy as the name for satirical writings on contemporary subjects containing picture-riddles that were composed for an annual carnival. However, the term rebus de Picardie is first attested later than the word rébus, and so could simply refer to rebuses popular in Picardy at the time.
* Alternatively, it could be from the phrase nōn verbīs sed rēbus meaning “not by words but by things”, but this “encounters difficulties in the chronology of the senses in French”.

der

Coordinate term: determinative

(linguistics) A pictographic component of a compound character (e.g. sinograph) used to hint at the pronunciation of the compound.


amelioration

en-noun

amelioration (countable and uncountable, plural ameliorations)

/əˌmiːliəˈɹeɪʃən/

(linguistics) The process by which a term gains a more positive connotation over time.

melioracija

process in which a term gains a more positive connotation over time


semelfactive

Learned borrowing from New Latin semelfactīvus, from to Latin semel (“once, a single time”) + factum (“event, occurrence”) + adjectival suffix -īvus.

lbor

(grammar) That denotes a momentary or punctiliar action.


non-verbal

In the Moroccan dialect of Meknès, verbal negation is by means of the circumfix ma...-š, as in (15), while nonverbal negation is primarily by means of invariable ma-ši before the nonverbal predicate, as in (16).

1991, Bernard Comrie, “On the Importance of Arabic to General Linguistic Theory”, in Bernard Comrie, Mushira Eid, editors, Perspectives on Arabic Linguistics III: Papers from the Third Annual Symposium on Arabic Linguistics, John Benjamins Publishing Company, →ISBN, page 15:

Negative prefix in Russian is a distinctive feature of nonverbal parts of speech, namesly, nouns (even those that do not denote situations, e.g. 3a), adjectives (3b), and adverbs (3c): […]

2009, Anna Pazelskaya, “Three Kinds of Event Nominal Negation in Russian”, in Peter Bosch, David Gabelaia, Jérôme Lang, editors, Logic, Language, and Computation: 7th International Tbilisi Symposium, Springer, →ISBN, page 25:

(grammar, somewhat rare) Of or relating to a word that belongs to any part of speech other than that of verbs


consecutive

en-noun

consecutive (countable and uncountable, plural consecutives)

From French consécutif, from Medieval Latin cōnsecūtīvus, from Latin cōnsecūtus (“followed up”), from Latin cōnsequor (“to travel”).

What marks the consecutive is its special morphology and syntax indicating the temporal succession of actions.

1986, Dieter Kastovsky, Aleksander Szwedek, Linguistics across Historical and Geographical Boundaries, →ISBN:

Unfortunately, we have not had the opportunity to study examples of consecutives in other languages. We hypothesize that consecutives may be found in other languages, especially in those langages that have a complicated system of Aktionsarten.

1993, Bernard Comrie, Maria Polinsky, Causatives and Transitivity, →ISBN, page 338:

Most commentators recognize that the two waw consecutives in Genesis 2:15 resume the narrative thread of verse 8.

2008, Terry Mortenson, Thane Ury, Coming to Grips With Genesis, →ISBN:

In imperfect consecutives, stress shifts from the final to the penultimate syllable, as in wayyáaqom 'and he arose', from the related jussive yaaqóom 'let him arise' (the final vowel is underlyingly short); this shift is blocked, however, if the penultimate syllable does not contain a long vowel, as shown by wayyabdéel 'and he divided'.

2013, John D. Alderete, Morphologically Governed Accent in Optimality Theory, →ISBN, page 285:

(linguistics, countable) A linguistic form that implies or describes an event that follows temporally from another.


emphasis

emphasis (countable and uncountable, plural emphases)

From Latin emphasis, from Ancient Greek ἔμφασις (émphasis, “significance”), from ἐμφαίνω (emphaínō, “I present, I indicate”), from ἐν- (en-, “in”) + φαίνω (phaínō, “I show”).

der

(phonology) The phonetic or phonological feature that distinguishes emphatic consonants from other consonants.

emfaasi

phonology: the phonetic or phonological feature that distinguishes emphatic consonants from other consonants


retronym

From retro- + -onym; coined by Frank Mankiewicz and popularized by William Safire.

Coordinate term: anachronym

The phrase is a retronym, the term Frank Mankiewicz has coined to describe names of familiar objects or events that need a modifier to catch up to more modern objects: day baseball and natural turf are in the same category as analog watch.

1982 December 26, William Safire, “On Language: Watch what you say”, in New York Times:

You can get a good sense of the pace of change over the past century just by looking at the retronyms we've accumulated. New technologies have forced us to come up with terms like steam locomotive, silent movie […]

2004, Geoff Nunberg, Going Nucular: Language, Politics, and Culture in Confrontational Times, →ISBN, page 239:

(linguistics) A new word or phrase coined for an old object or concept whose original name has become used for something else or is no longer unique, or which did not originally have a specific name.


paronym

Coined around 1846 from Ancient Greek παρώνυμος (parṓnumos, “derivative”), equivalent to para- + -onym.

(semantics) A word derived from the same root or stem as another word; classes include cognates and naturalizations of foreign words.


initial

From Middle French initial or directly from its Latin etymon initiālis (“of the beginning, incipient, initial”), from initium (“a going in, entrance, beginning”), from inire (“to go in, enter upon, begin”), from in (“in”) + ire (“to go”).

(phonology) onset, part of a syllable that precedes the syllable nucleus in phonetics and phonology.


kinesics

Learned borrowing from Ancient Greek κῑ́νησῐς (kī́nēsis, “motion”, noun) + English -ics (suffix forming nouns denoting fields of knowledge or practice), coined by the American anthropologist Ray L. Birdwhistell (1918–1994) in his work Introduction to Kinesics (1952): see the quotation. Κῑ́νησῐς (Kī́nēsis) is derived from κῑνέω (kīnéō, “to set in motion, move”) (from Proto-Indo-European *ḱey- (“to be lying down; to settle”)) + -σῐς (-sis, suffix forming abstract nouns or nouns of action, process, or result).


dependent clause

en-noun

dependent clause (plural dependent clauses)


pragmatist

From Ancient Greek πρᾶγμα (prâgma, “thing”).

(linguistics) one who studies pragmatics.


Nipponism

(linguistics) A Japanese word or phrase used in English.

(linguistics) A Japanese way of using English words.


marked

en-adj

marked (comparative more marked, superlative most marked)

more marked (comparative)
most marked (superlative)

From mark (“sign, characteristic, visible impression”) + -ed.

affix

"Young" is the marked element of the old/young pair, since the usual way of asking someone's age is "How old are you?".

(linguistics, of a word, form, or phoneme) Distinguished by a positive feature.

jelölt

linguistics, of a word, form, or phoneme: distinguished by a positive feature


pulmonic sounds

(phonetics) sounds in which the air stream originates in the lungs.


VP

(linguistics) Initialism of verb phrase.


concrete noun

(grammar) A noun that denotes something tangible or material, such as a person or place.


polysynthetic

en-adj

polysynthetic (comparative more polysynthetic, superlative most polysynthetic)

more polysynthetic (comparative)
most polysynthetic (superlative)

"No doubt, sir," Summerlee answered. "Like all such tribes, I shall expect to find them of polysynthetic speech and of Mongolian type." "Polysynthetic certainly," said Challenger, indulgently.

1912, Arthur Conan Doyle, The Lost World […], London; New York, N.Y.: Hodder and Stoughton, →OCLC:

(grammar, of languages) Characterized by a prevalence of relatively long words containing a large number of morphemes. Typically, the morphemes are bound.


apprehensive

/ˌæpɹɪˈhɛnsɪv/

From Latin apprehensīvus, from apprehensus, perfect passive participle of apprehendō (“to apprehend, understand, learn”) + -īvus (“-ive”).

In 16.66 the non-visual apprehensive is used with the third-person.

2003, Alexandra Y. Aikhenvald, “16 - Mood and modality”, in A Grammar of Tariana, from Northwest Amazonia, Cambridge University Press, →DOI, →ISBN, page 384:

(grammar) A mood indicating an undesired outcome.


monotransitive

(grammar, linguistics) pertaining to a transitive verb that takes a single mandatory object, either a direct object or a primary object depending on the language.


intentional

[ɪnˈtʰɛnʃn̩ɫ̩]

Borrowed from Medieval Latin intentiōnālis. By surface analysis, intention + -al.

bor+

Tariana distinguishes interrogative and imperative moods. Interrogative mood is marked through a separate set of evidentials fused with tense (see §14.2). Imperatives are discussed in §16.1. Modalities include: frustrative (§16.2), intentional (§16.3), apprehensive (§16.4), uncertainty (§16.5), conditional (§16.6), purposive (§16.7) and counter-expectation (§16.8). […] The intentional is marked with the clitic -kasu. It can occur with any group of verbs, marking imminent action, as in 16.60 and intention, as in 16.61.

2003, Alexandra Y. Aikhenvald, “16 - Mood and modality”, in A Grammar of Tariana, from Northwest Amazonia, Cambridge University Press, →DOI, →ISBN, pages 371, 383:

(grammar) The cohortative mood as found in Hebrew (terminology borrowed from Julius Friedrich Böttcher † 1863 and now outmoded), and constructions of similar purpose in even more exotic languages.


monogenesis

en-noun

monogenesis (usually uncountable, plural monogeneses)

/mɒnəˈd͡ʒɛnəsɪs/

(linguistics) The theory that all languages, or a particular set of languages, originated from a single source.


implicate

en-verb

implicate (third-person singular simple present implicates, present participle implicating, simple past and past participle implicated)

implicates (present singular third-person)
implicating (participle present)
implicated (participle past)
implicated (past)

Borrowed from Latin implicatus < implico (“entangle, involve”), from plico (“fold”). Doublet of imply and employ.

(pragmatics) To imply without entailing; to have as an implicature.


systole

Borrowed from New Latin, from Ancient Greek συστολή (sustolḗ), from συστέλλω (sustéllō, “to contract”), from σύν (sún, “together”) + στέλλω (stéllō, “to send”).

(prosody) A shortening of a naturally long vowel.


flapping

en-noun

flapping (countable and uncountable, plural flappings)

(phonology) A phonological process found in many dialects of English, especially American English and Canadian English, by which intervocalic /t/ and /d/ surface as the alveolar flap [ɾ] before an unstressed syllable, so that words such as "metal" and "medal" are pronounced similarly or identically.


transfix

(linguistics) A discontinuous affix, which occurs at more than one position in a word, typical of Semitic languages.

插綴

a discontinuous affix, which occurs at more than one position in a word, typical of Semitic languages


protraction

protraction (countable and uncountable, plural protractions)

(linguistics) The lengthening of a short syllable.


toponym

Back-formation from toponymy. By surface analysis, topo + -nym.

As we celebrate one hundred years of official 'standardization' of Canadian toponyms, this would be an appropriate time to reflect upon the state of toponyms used by the Aboriginal people of Canada.

2003, William C. Wonders, Canada's Changing North, →ISBN, page 207:

Conquests were recorded using toponyms that refer to specific cities or locations, and war captives were identified by their place of origin.

2006, Robert J. Sharer, Loa P. Traxler, The Ancient Maya, →ISBN, page 714:

If ביתדוד of the Tel Dan Inscription did originate with a temple of some kind, then we must interpret the ‘’’toponym’’’ as meaning 'House of (the) Patron'. Thus, although the toponym ביתדוד in the Tel Dan Inscription can be connected indirectly with a deity, such a connection is not demanded by the toponym itself.

2006, George Athas, The Tel Dan Inscription: A Reappraisal and a New Introduction, →ISBN:


mediopassive

Whereas the function of the passive voice is to remove the agent from the discussion of a transitive activity, the function of the mediopassive voice is to discuss an event in a way which explicitly denies the involvement of an initiating agent.

1989, Jon Philip Dayley, University of California publications in linguistics: volume 115, →ISBN:

Until about 1900 the r-element attached to mediopassive endings was merely regarded as a marginal feature peculiar to Halo-Celtic; it was taken as evidence for Italo-Celtic because it was supposed to be an innovation of these two groups.

1990, Kazuhiko Yoshida, The Hittite Mediopassive Endings in -ri, →ISBN, page 103:

(grammar) Pertaining to a voice of a transitive verb that is both middle voice and passive voice or reflexive and passive voice.


mediopassive

A systematic study of mediopassive sell in the BNC (Figure 6) confirms that – at least for this verb – the constraint seems to hold: the vast majority of mediopassives with sell contain some kind of modification, namely 92.2%.

2014, Antoinette Renouf, Andrew Kehoe, The Changing Face of Corpus Linguistics, →ISBN, page 177:

More importantly, it is highly context dependent: (a) certain text types (such as advertising copy) seem to license bare mediopassives more than others (see Section 6.4.1), (b) contextually implied contrast may enable an inherent property reading of a bare mediopassive (see Sections 6.4.2.1 and 6.4.2.2), or the verb itself might foster bare mediopassive use (this seems to be the case with denominal verbs like zip, button, bolt, or clamp, see Goldberg and Ackerman 2001: 806).

2014, Marianne Hundt, Late Modern English Syntax, →ISBN, page 107:

(grammar) A mediopassive construction; a phrase that uses the mediopassive voice.

voz médio-passiva

grammatical voice in which the actor of a stative verb is not expressed


polygenesis

polygenesis (usually uncountable, plural polygeneses)

/ˌpɒlɪˈd͡ʒɛnəsɪs/

The alternative to monogenesis for the origin of language is polygenesis, i.e. that language originated in human evolution at a number of distinct points. If polygenesis is assumed, then the different protolanguages would have developed independently and lead over millennia to the diversity of the descendant languages found at the present day.

1994, Jan Wind, Abraham Jonker, Robin Allott, Leonard Rolfe, editors, Studies in Language Origins, volume 3, John Benjamins Publishing, →ISBN, page 131:

(linguistics) The theory that languages developed independently in different places at different periods, as opposed to originating from a single source.


future perfect

future perfect (plural future perfects or futures perfect)

future perfects (plural)
futures perfect (plural)

The sentence “In a few years time I will have moved to another country” is in the future perfect.

(grammar) A tense that expresses action completed at some time in the future; in English it is formed by use of will have (or shall have) and a past participle

voltooid tegenwoordig toekomende tijd

a tense that expresses action completed at some time in the future


tramline

Those words that [James] Murray classified as denizens and aliens, as well as those casuals approaching these two prior categories, were marked by two parallel lines beside the headword (||), a symbol known by the in-house term tramline. Murray himself admitted to the inherent subjectivity of his method of classification, which unsurprisingly led to a number of inconsistencies in the use of tramlines, and may even have contributed to the patchiness of the OED's regional coverage that Weiner acknowledged many years later.

2014 May 23, Danica Salazar, “Towards improved coverage of Southeast Asian Englishes in the Oxford English Dictionary”, in Lexicography, Berlin: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, →DOI, →ISSN, →OCLC:

(lexicography, Oxford English Dictionary jargon) A pair of vertical bars (||) placed to the left of the headword in certain editions of the OED to indicate that the term is "alien or not fully naturalized" (such as a recent borrowing).


solecism

Borrowed from French solécisme, from Latin soloecismus, from Ancient Greek σολοικισμός (soloikismós), from σόλοικος (sóloikos, “speaking incorrectly”), from Σόλοι (Sóloi), an ancient Athenian colony in Cilicia whose inhabitants spoke a dialect regarded by Athenians as a corrupted and barbarous form of Attic Greek. Compare Atticism.

The "simple" metaphor, such as the instance given, becomes the "continued" metaphor when the analogy or similitude is worked out in a series of phrases and expressions based on the primary metaphor; it is in such "continued metaphors" that the solecism of "mixed" metaphors is likely to occur.

1911, “Metaphor”, in Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition:

Eliot and Gertrude Stein had a solemn conversation, mostly about split infinitives and other grammatical solecisms and why Gertrude Stein used them.

1933, Gertrude Stein, The Autobiography of Alice B Toklas:

Prepositions are also prone to particular solecisms and infelicities.

2008, Ben Yagoda, chapter VII, in When You Catch an Adjective, Kill It, Crown, →ISBN:

On June 12th The Economist’s pages featured an activist investor “honing in on the dearth of energy experience” on a company’s board. A few readers honed in on a solecism: the original phrase is to “home in” on something, like the creatures that find their way back to their nests—that is, they “home”—with surprising precision.

2021 July 15, “Sometimes solecisms can reveal linguistic ingenuity”, in The Economist, →ISSN:


varietal

/vəˈɹaɪətəl/

An assessment of a selection of regional, varietal, and slang dictionaries also found that little lexicographical effort has been extended to these terms.

2018, James Lambert, “A multitude of ‘lishes’: The nomenclature of hybridity”, in English World-Wide, page 2:

(linguistics) Of or relating to a variety of a language.


illative case

Languages that make use of the illative case include Finnish, Hungarian, and Quechua.

(grammar) A case used to indicate movement into something; for example, into the house.


vulgarism

"Shit" is a vulgarism.

(grammar) A word or term that is considered offensive or vulgar.


locative case

(linguistics, grammar) A case used to indicate place, or the place where, or wherein; corresponding roughly to the English prepositions "in", "on", "at", and "by".

ներգոյական հոլով

前置格 (ぜんちかく, zenchikaku) "prepositional case"

өгөх оршихын тийн ялгал (ögöx oršixyn tiin jalgal, literally “dative-locative case”)

оршихын тийн ялгал (oršixyn tiin jalgal, literally “locative case”)


ablative case

(grammar) A noun case used in some languages to indicate movement away from something, removal, separation. In English grammar, it corresponds roughly to the use in English of prepositions "of", "from", "away from", and "concerning". In Latin grammar, the ablative case (cāsus ablātīvus) includes functions derived from the Indo-European ablative, instrumental, comitative, associative and locative cases; these cases express concepts similar to those of the English prepositions "of"/"from", "by", "with", "to"/"with", and "at"/"in", respectively. Here/hence/hither, there/thence/thither, and where/whence/whither are the only English words with separate forms for the ablative (motion away from) and lative (motion towards) cases.

rrjedhore

grammatical case used to indicate movement away from something, removal, separation, source


insert

From Latin insertus, past participle of inserō, from in- + serō (“join, bind together, connect, entwine, interweave”), ultimately from Proto-Indo-European *ser- (“to bind, put together, to line up”). Compare exsert.

der

(linguistics) An expression, such as "please" or an interjection, that may occur at various points in an utterance.


inessive case

(grammar) noun case used to indicate location inside something. In English, this is usually expressed by the prepositions "in" or "inside", as in "inside the house". Languages that use the inessive case include Finnish, Hungarian, Estonian, Ossetian and Erzya.


temporal case

(grammar) A noun case used to specify a time. In English, this is usually expressed by the preposition "at," as in "at six o’clock," "at midnight," "at Christmas." Hungarian is a language that uses the temporal case.


adessive case

(grammar) A noun case used to indicate adjacent location. In English, this is usually expressed by the prepositions near, at, or by, as in "by the house." Languages that use the adessive case include Finnish, Hungarian, Estonian, Lezgi and Lithuanian.


hypernym

From hyper- (“over”) + -nym (“name”). From Ancient Greek roots; compare Latinate “superordinate term”.

“Musical instrument” is a hypernym of “guitar” because a guitar is a musical instrument: a guitar belongs to a class or type of musical instruments.

Hypernyms of “dog” and “cat” include “mammal”, “pet”, “carnivore”, and “quadruped”.

(semantics) A superordinate word or phrase; a term whose referents form a set which includes as a subset the referents of a subordinate term—as, for example, insect being (a hypernym) for ant.


superessive case

en-noun

superessive case (plural superessive cases)

(grammar) Noun case used to indicate location on an object. In English, it roughly corresponds to the prepositions "on" or "on top of", as in "on top of the house". Hungarian is a language that uses the superessive case.


delative case

(grammar) case used to indicate movement from an object. In English, this is usually expressed by the prepositions from or off of, as in "down off of the house." Hungarian is a language that uses the delative case, see -ról.


caritive case

(grammar) A case used to express the lack or absence of something. It has the meaning of the English preposition "without." The caritive case is found in some Caucasian languages.

karitiivi

case used to express the lack of something


abessive case

Languages that use the abessive case include Erzya, Estonian, Finnish, Mongolian, Northern Sámi, and Inari Sámi.

(grammar) A grammatical case used to express the lack or absence of something. It has the meaning of the English preposition without or the affix -less.


allative case

(grammar) A case used to indicate movement onto, or to the adjacency of something. In English, this is usually expressed by the prepositions to or onto, as in "to the house," "onto the house." Languages that use the allative case include Basque, Dyirbal, Estonian, Finnish, Hungarian, and Lithuanian.


collective noun

collective noun (plural collective nouns)

A hundred, a thousand, few, many, are to be considered as collective nouns, and distinguished as such, by the singular article.

1775, John Ash, The New and Complete Dictionary of the English Language, volume 1, London: Edward and Charles Dilly in the Poultry; and R. Baldwin in Pater-Noster Row, →OCLC, page 23:

British English tends more than American English to have plural agreement with collective nouns.

2008, Ron Cowan, The Teacher's Grammar of English with Answers:

(grammar) A noun which, though singular, refers to a group of things or animals. Examples: a school of fish, a pride of lions.

versamelnaam

noun referring to a group of similar things


disjunctive

en-adj

disjunctive (comparative more disjunctive, superlative most disjunctive)

more disjunctive (comparative)
most disjunctive (superlative)

From Middle English disjunctief, disjunctyf, from Middle French disjunctif and Latin disjunctīvus (“placed in opposition”).

der

(grammar, of a personal pronoun) Not used in immediate conjunction with the verb of which the pronoun is the subject.

disjunktiivinen

grammar, of a personal pronoun: not used in immediate conjunction


conjunctive

From Latin coniunctivus (“serving to connect”), from coniunctus, past participle of coniungere; compare conjoin. From late 15th c; grammatical sense from 1660s.

uder

(grammar) Relating to a conjunction (part of speech).

(grammar) Relating to the conjunctive mood.

(grammar) Of a personal pronoun, used only in immediate conjunction with the verb of which the pronoun is the subject, such as French je or Irish sé

(grammar, of a verb) Subjunctive: inflected to indicate that an act or state of being is possible, contingent or hypothetical, and not a fact.


benefactive case

en-noun

benefactive case (plural benefactive cases)

Basque and Quechua are languages with a benefactive case.

(grammar) A case used to indicate beneficiary, or the receiver of the benefit, roughly corresponding to English prepositions such as for, for the benefit of, in the interests of, intended for, or on behalf of.


impersonal verb

impersonal verb (plural impersonal verbs)

(linguistics) A verb used only in the infinitive or in the third person. In the third person, the subject is either implied or a dummy.

persoonaton verbi

verb used only in the infinitive or in the third-person


absolutive case

absolutive case (plural absolutive cases)

(grammar) case used to indicate the patient or experiencer of a verb’s action. The absolutive case is used to mark the subject of an intransitive verb, as well as the object of a transitive verb (inasmuch as they are codified in the English nominative-accusative system). Some languages that employ the absolutive case include Abkhaz, Basque, Chechen, Dyirbal, Hindi, Inuktitut, Hiligaynon, and Yup'ik.


diglossia

From Latin diglōssia. In linguistics introduced 1959 by Charles A. Ferguson, based on French diglossie, from Ancient Greek δίγλωσσος (díglōssos, “bilingual”) + -ία (-ía). Equivalent to di- + -glossia.

der

Coordinate term: digraphia

To begin with, of the two varieties involved in diglossia, the one serving (H)igh societal functions, unlike that reserved for (L)ow ones, is nobody's mother tongue: it is learned in later life largely by formal education, and is not used for ordinary conversation. Secondly, the diglossic contrast concerns widely divergent varieties, as opposed to stylistic contrasts which tend to be small-scale. Moreover, diglossia occurs within a single language, while bilingualism or multilingualism, involve far more divergent linguistic systems.

1994, Periklis Daltas, “The Concept of Diglossia from Ferguson to Fishman to Fasold”, in Irene Philippaki-Warburton, Katerina Nicolaidis, Maria Sifianou, editors, Themes in Greek Linguistics: Papers from the First International Conference on Greek Linguistics, John Benjamins Publishing Company, page 341:

2000, Joshua A. Fishman, Chapter 3: Bilingualism with and without diglossia; diglossia with and without bilingualism, Li Wei (editor), The Bilingualism Reader, Taylor & Francis (Routledge), page 81,
It is the purpose of this chapter to relate these two research traditions to each other by tracing the interaction between their two major constructs: bilingualism (on the part of psychologists) and diglossia (on the part of sociologists).

Only very small and isolated communities display neither diglossia nor bilingualism.

2013, Elien Declercq, Michael Boyden, “Multilingualism and Diglossia in Migration Literature: The Case of Flemish Songs in Northern France”, in Wolfgang Behschnitt, Sarah De Mul, Liesbeth Minnaard, editors, Literature, Language, and Multiculturalism in Scandinavia and the Low Countries, Rodopi, page 20:

(linguistics, sociology) The coexistence in a given population of two closely related native languages or dialects, one of which is regarded as more prestigious than the other; the similar coexistence of two unrelated languages.

اِزْدِوَاجِيَّة لُغَوِيَّة

the coexistence of two closely related native languages

二言語変種使い分け

にげんごへんしゅつかいわけ


pet name

My boyfriend won't let me call him by his pet name, Pookie, in public.

A nickname, especially a name used by those in love with one another.


ergative case

en-noun

ergative case (usually uncountable, plural ergative cases)

(grammar) A grammatical case used to indicate the agent of a transitive verb in ergative-absolutive languages.

nork

case used to indicate the agent of a verb in ergative-absolutive languages


domesticate

en-verb

domesticate (third-person singular simple present domesticates, present participle domesticating, simple past and past participle domesticated)

domesticates (present singular third-person)
domesticating (participle present)
domesticated (participle past)
domesticated (past)

From domestic + -ate (verb-forming suffix). Compare French domestiquer.

ընտելացնել

(transitive) to adapt to live with humans

ընտելանալ

(intransitive) to adapt to live with humans

(transitive, translation studies) To amend the elements of a text to fit local culture.


supine

The adjective is borrowed from Latin supīnus, from *sup- (see sub (“under”)) + -īnus (“of, pertaining to”). The word is cognate with Catalan supí, Italian supino, Old French sovin, Middle French souvin, Anglo-Norman supin, Old Occitan sobin, sopin, Portuguese supino, Spanish supino. Partly displaced Old English upweard (“upward, supine”), whence Modern English upward.
The noun is from Late Middle English supin (“supine of a Latin verb”) or Middle French supin (“(grammar) supine”), from Latin supīnum, (ellipsis of supīnum verbum (“supine verb”)), from supīnus; further etymology above.

der

And here also you may observ, that the syllable which is doubled in the Preterperfect tens is not doubled in the Supines, as totondi to clip, make's tonsum: cecídi to beat, cæsum: […]

1653, Charles Hoole, “Of the Supines of Simple Verbs”, in The Latine Grammar Fitted for the Use of Schools. […], 2nd corrected edition, London: Printed by William Du-Gard; and are to bee sold by John Saywell […], →OCLC, page 142:

There be alſo appertaining unto Verbs, two Supines, the one ending in um, which is called the firſt Supine, becauſe it hath the ſignification of the Verb Active: as, Eo amatum, I go to love: and the other in u, becauſe it hath for the moſt part the ſignification of Paſſive, as Difficilis amatu, hard to be loved.

1718, Richard Johnson, “Of Supines”, in Grammatical Commentaries: Being an Apparatus to a New National Grammar: […], London: Printed for the author, and sold by Thomas Bickerton, […], →OCLC, page 354:

Of the large number of verbs which take the infinitive in Old-English the greater number are now followed by the supine. […] The substitution of the supine for the infinitive began in Old-English itself. Thus the supine of purpose, as in hīe cōmon þæt land tō sċēawienne 'they came to spy out the land,' gradually supplanted the older infinitive with many verbs of desiring, intending, attempting, etc., so that while such a verb as willan 'will' continued—as it still does in modern English—to take the infinitive only, other verbs of similar meaning, […] began to take the supine as well as the infinitive.

1898, Henry Sweet, “Verbs”, in A New English Grammar: Logical and Historical (Clarendon Press Series), part II (Syntax), Oxford: At the Clarendon Press [by Horace Hart], →OCLC, §§ 2314 and 2315, page 118:

If you must know, the verb finite (i.e. limited by person and number) has three persons, two numbers, six tenses and three moods, while the verb infinite (not so limited) has infinitives, three participles, the gerund and gerundive and two supines.

2013, Emma Short, Alex George, “The Verb (Stearn, pp. 130–139)”, in A Primer of Botanical Latin with Vocabulary, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, →ISBN, page 47:

The chapter focuses on the supine clause, which is a language-specific construction. An example is offered in (1): the aspectual verb isprăvi 'finish' selects a clausal complement that contains a supine verb. We know that the supine is a verb because its direct object is in unmarked Case (i.e. Accusative). Supine nouns, like any regular noun, have the direct object marked for Genitive Case. […] The emergence and the spread of the supine clause is very well captured in the Old Romanian texts, a situation that contrasts with the incomplete information we have about other clausal complements.

2016, Virginia Hill, Gabriela Albiou, “Supine Clauses: On the Road to Balkanization”, in Verb Movement and Clause Structure in Old Romanian (Oxford Studies in Diachronic & Historical Linguistics), Oxford: Oxford University Press, →ISBN, page 267:

(grammar, also attributively) In Latin and other languages: a type of verbal noun used in the ablative and accusative cases, which shares the same stem as the passive participle.

The three conjugations are distinguished principally by the ending of the supine. In the first conjugation the supine ends in at, as: tala speak talat spoken. In the second conjugation the supine ends in t after a consonant, as: köpa buy köpt bought. In the third conjugation the supine ends in it, as: taga take tagit taken.

[1849], A[lfred] May, “Etymology”, in A Practical Grammar of the Swedish Language, with Reading- and Writing-exercises, Stockholm: A. Bonnier, →OCLC, page 42:

There are two non-finite forms in Swedish, the infinitive and the supine. […] The supine has two basic allomorphs: -t (weak verbs) and -it (strong verbs). […] The supine verb phrase serves as complement of the perfect auxiliary ha 'have' (hon hade bundit honom) which can be deleted, though, in subordinate clauses (eftersom hon [hade] bundit honom 'since she had bound him'). (The supine has existed as a morphologically distinct category in standard Swedish language at least since the 19th c.; cf. art. 155.)

2005, Ulf Teleman, “The Standard Languages and Their Systems in the 20th Century IV: Swedish”, in Herbert Ernst Wiegand, editor, The Nordic Languages: An International Handbook of the History of the North Germanic Languages (Händbucher zur Sprach- und Kommunikationswissenschaft [Handbooks of Linguistics and Communication Science]; 22.2), volume 2, Berlin, New York, N.Y.: Walter de Gruyter, →ISBN, part XVI (The Nordic Languages in the 20th Century), pages 1613–1614:

(grammar, also attributively) In Swedish, Faroese, Icelandic and Old Norse: a verb form that combines with an inflection of ha/hafa/hava to form the present perfect and pluperfect tenses.

(grammar, also attributively) (obsolete terminology) The 'to'-prefixed infinitive in English or other Germanic languages, so named because the infinitive was regarded as a verbal noun and the 'to'-prefixed form of it was seen as the dative form of the verbal noun; the full infinitive.


imperfect tense

en-noun

imperfect tense (plural imperfect tenses)

“I was watching tennis” is an example of the imperfect tense.

(grammar) A tense used to describe a past action that is ongoing, incomplete or continuous, or coincident with another action.


onomastics

1936, from the adjective onomastic (“of or belonging to naming”) (1716) with a suffix -s, from French onomastique, from Ancient Greek ὀνομαστικός (onomastikós), from ὀνομαστός (onomastós, “named”), form of ὀνομάζω (onomázō, “I name”), from ὄνομα (ónoma, “name”), from Proto-Indo-European *h₁nómn̥ (“name”) (whence English name).

Her father had long been a student of onomastics, and loved to unpack the names of people they encountered as children.

2024, Susie Dent, Guilty By Definition, Zaffre, page 65:

The branch of lexicology devoted to the study of names and naming, especially the origins of names.


counter

Inherited from Middle English countour, from Old French conteor (French comptoir), from Medieval Latin computātōrium, from Latin computō, equivalent to count + -er. Doublet of cantore, computer, and kontor.

doublet

[ˈkʰaʊ̯.ɾ̃ɚ]

(grammar) A class of word used along with numbers to count objects and events, typically mass nouns. Although rare and optional in English (e.g. "20 head of cattle"), they are numerous and required in Chinese, Japanese, and Korean.

vastatoimi

something in contradiction to a proposal


backslang

en-noun

backslang (countable and uncountable, plural backslangs)

Coordinate term: centre slang

(linguistics) A form of slang composed of words whose spelling or sound is reversed.


toponymy

toponymy (countable and uncountable, plural toponymies)

(semantics) Lexicological study of place names; a branch of onomastics.


conditional tense

conditional tense (plural conditional tenses)

But he is stopped short by vocabulary, by the conditional tense, by that way of speaking that shifts everything into the hypothetical, into an imagined existence that could or could not be true.

2019, Maaza Mengiste
, The Shadow King, Canongate Books (2020), page 341:


aspiration

aspiration (countable and uncountable, plural aspirations)

From aspirate + -ion or borrowed from Latin aspiratio, aspirationem.

(phonetics) A burst of air that follows the release of some consonants.

زَفْر

(French, linguistics) The silent breaking h beginning some French words, largely of Germanic origin.

(Gaelic, linguistics) The process of lenition involving writing a digraph with h, especially at the beginning of a word.


idiolect

She perfected the fictional idiolect, fashioning habits of speaking for even minor characters that rendered them utterly singular.

2012, John Mullan, What Matters in Jane Austen?: Twenty Crucial Puzzles Solved, page 3:

(linguistics) The language variant used by a specific individual.

idiolek

variant of a language used by a particular individual


sociolect

From socio- + -lect, by analogy with dialect, idiolect, etc.

The French literary critic Roland Barthes has paid special attention to the relationship between the individual language ("idiolect") and the language of a collective of speech ("sociolect"). Public life is characterized by "social multilingualism." There are a number of languages, such as the language of the church, the language of the prison, the language of the children, the language of the ruling elite, and other "social languages."

1984, Yu[ri] Suvaryan, V[aleri] Mirzoyan, R[uben] Hayrapetyan, “Language and Speech in the System of Public Administration”, in Public Administration: Theory and History, Yerevan, Armenia: “Gitutuin” Publishing House of the NAS RA [National Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Armenia], →ISBN, page 277:

[…] I believe that it is mistaken to maintain that the language of ideology is a discrete ‘sociolect’, a sort of meta-language which draws upon but remains distinct from the language of everyday life.

1984, John B[rookshire] Thompson, “Theories of Ideology and Methods of Discourse Analysis: Towards a Framework for the Analysis of Ideology”, in Studies in the Theory of Ideology, Berkeley, Los Angeles, Calif.: University of California Press, →ISBN, page 89:

This paper uses sociolect as a cover term for slang, technical jargon (professionalisms), and argot. From the point of view of its secret nature, two kinds of sociolects are distinguished: slang and technical jargon on the one hand, and argot on the other, with the difference being in the presence or lack of an intention of secrecy.

1999, Pavol Odaloš, “Mi a szociolektus és mi a szleng? [What is a Sociolect and what is Slang?]”, in Anna Fenyvesi, Tamás Kis, Judit Szilvia Várnai, editors, Mi a szleng? Tanulmányok a szleng fogalmáról [What is Slang? Studies on the Concept of Slang] (Szlengkutatás [Slang Research]; 3), Debrecen, Hungary: Kossuth Egyetemi Kiadó [Kossuth University Press], →ISBN, →ISSN, English summary, page 50:

In sociolinguistics, a sociolect or social dialect is a variety of language (a register) associated with a social group such as a socioeconomic class, an ethnic group (precisely termed ethnolect), an age group, etc. Sociolects involve both passive acquisition of particular communicative practices through association with a local community, as well as active learning and choice among speech or writing forms to demonstrate identification with particular grounds. Sociolinguists define a sociolect by examining the social distribution of specific linguistic terms.

2014, Peter Wuteh Vakunta, “Literary Camfranglais in Mercédès Fouda’s Je parle camerounais : pour un renouveau francofaune”, in Camfranglais: The Making of a New Language in Cameroonian Literature, Mankon, Bamenda, Cameroon: Langaa Research & Publishing Common Initiative Group, →ISBN, page 82, footnote 26:

(sociolinguistics) The variant of language used by a social group such as a socioeconomic class, an ethnic group, an age group, etc.


gerundive

/dʒəˈɹʌndɪv/

From Latin gerundīvus (“of a gerund”), from gerundium (“gerund”), from gerundus (“which is to be carried out”), future passive participle (gerundive) of gerō (“carry, bear”).

(in Latin grammar) a verbal adjective that describes obligation or necessity, equivalent in form to the future passive participle.

gerundiivi

Latin verbal adjective that describes obligation or necessity

(less commonly, in English grammar) a verbal adjective ending in -ing, also called a "present participle".

gerundi

verbal adjective — see also present participle


reflexive

From Medieval Latin reflexīvus, from Latin reflexus.

(grammar) Referring back to the subject, or having an object equal to the subject.


syncretism

syncretism (countable and uncountable, plural syncretisms)

/ˈsɪŋkɹəˌtɪzm/

From Latin syncretismus, from Ancient Greek συγκρητισμός (sunkrētismós, “federation of Cretan cities”), from συγκρητίζω (sunkrētízō, “to unite against a common enemy”), from σύν (sún, “together”) (see English syn-) + Κρῆτες (Krêtes, “Cretans”). By surface analysis, syn- + Crete + -ism (“Crete joining together”).

der

συγκρητισμός

surf

In this paper a distinction is assumed between full syncretism, which affects whole morphemes, and partial syncretism, which affects only some case allomorphs, and also between syncretism proper and mere loss of a case morpheme.

1993, Robert Coleman, “Patterns of Syncretism in Indo-European”, in Henk Aertsen, Robert J. Jeffers, editors, Historical Linguistics 1989: Papers from the 9th International Conference, John Benjamins Publishing Company, page 111:

Romanian conjugation displays several cases of syncretism, in which two paradigmatic slots share the same grammatical desinence.[…]On the other hand, the syncretisms of the imperfect and subjunctive are not phonologically conditioned and, as such, apply to every verb without exception.

2004, Ronald F. Feldstein, “On the Structure of Syncretism in Romanian Conjugation”, in Julie Auger, J. Clancy Clements, Barbara Vance, editors, Contemporary Approaches to Romance Linguistics, John Benjamins Publishing Company, page 177:

In this chapter, I will investigate whether they deserve this name by looking at syncretisms between clusivity and other person markers.

2005, Michael Cysouw, “Chapter 3: Syncretisms involving clusivity”, in Elena Filimonova, editor, Clusivity: Typology and Case Studies of Inclusive-exclusive Distinction, John Benjamins Publishing Company, page 73:

(linguistics) The fusion of different inflexional forms.


framework

inquadramento

the identification and categorisation of processes or steps that constitute a complex task or mindset

(grammar) An established and structured system of rules and principles used for analyzing and describing the structure of a language.


comparative degree

en-noun

comparative degree (plural comparative degrees)

(grammar) The form of an adverb or adjective that is used when comparing two things.


superlative degree

(grammar) adverbial or adjectival forms modified by most or ending in -est, used when comparing three or more things


username

Coordinate term: password

(computing) A person's identification on an individual computer system.

اِسْم مُسْتَخْدِم

a person's identification on an individual computer system


interruption

interruption (countable and uncountable, plural interruptions)

/ˌɪntəˈɹʌpʃən/

From Middle English interrupcioun, from Old French interrupcion, from Latin interruptio.

(linguistics) the act of breaking into someone else’s speech.


subordinate

en-adj

subordinate (comparative more subordinate, superlative most subordinate)

more subordinate (comparative)
most subordinate (superlative)

From Middle English subordinat, from Medieval Latin subōrdinātus, past participle of subōrdināre, from sub- + ōrdināre (“to order”).

In the sentence “The barbecue finished before John arrived”, the subordinate clause “before John arrived” specifies the time of the main clause, “The barbecue finished”.

(grammar, of a clause, not comparable) dependent on and either modifying or complementing the main clause


projection

en-noun

projection (countable and uncountable, plural projections)

/pɹəˈd͡ʒɛkʃən/

From either the Middle French projection or its etymon, the Classical Latin prōiectiō (stem: prōiectiōn-), from prōiciō, equivalent to project + -ion. Compare the Modern French projection, the German Projektion, and the Italian proiezione.

(grammar) The preservation of the properties of lexical items while generating the phrase structure of a sentence. See Projection principle.


vibrant

From French vibrant, from Latin vibrans, present participle of vibrare (“to vibrate”). See vibrate.

(phonetics) Any of a class of consonants including taps and trills.


denizen

From Middle English denisein, from Old French denzein, from deinz (“within”) + -ein, from Late Latin dē intus (“from within”), whence French dans.

(linguistics) A foreign word that has become naturalised in another language in terms of use, but not in terms of form.

kupu mino

foreign word that has become naturalised within a language


apodosis

Learned borrowing from Late Latin apodosis, itself borrowed from Ancient Greek ἀπόδοσις (apódosis).

lbor

Coordinate term: protasis

In "I will be coming if this weather holds up", "I will be coming" is the apodosis and "this weather holds up" is the protasis.

1943 Dornford Yates An Eye for a Tooth
"If, after that, there is anything more to be done. . ."
"Yes?"
"You’d ----well better do it," said Forecast.
The meaning with which he invested this blunt apodosis was unmistakable. Even I, an eavesdropper, found it most sinister: and I was not surprised when, after a little silence, the other turned on his heel and led the way to the road.

1997 Angeliki Athanasiadou, René Dirven (eds) On Conditionals Again p. 309 by Hansjakob Seiler
There is furthermore the claim that conditionals necessarily involve a causal relation from protasis to apodosis. This may hold for the "conjunctive" types signalling a natural consequence from protasis to apodosis, but becomes increasingly unlikely as we approach disjunctive structures of the type. "May I perish most miserably, if I do not love Xanthia." does not mean "May I perish most miserably, because I do not love Xanthia."

(logic, grammar) The consequential clause in a conditional sentence.

جَوَابُ الشَّرْط

the consequential clause in a conditional sentence


paragoge

en-noun

paragoge (countable and uncountable, plural paragoges)

/pæɹəˈɡəʊd͡ʒi/

From Late Latin paragoge, from Ancient Greek παραγωγή (paragōgḗ, “derivation, addition”).

der

(grammar, prosody) The addition of a sound, syllable or letter to the end of a word, either through natural development or as a grammatical function.

lostkresk

the addition of a sound, syllable or letter to the end of a word


volition

en-noun

volition (countable and uncountable, plural volitions)

From French volition, from Medieval Latin volitiō (“will, volition”), from Latin volō (“to wish; to want; to mean or intend”) (ultimately from Proto-Indo-European *welh₁- (“to choose; to want”)) + -tiō (suffix forming nouns relating to some action or the result of an action) (ultimately from Proto-Indo-European *-tis (suffix forming abstract or action nouns from verbs)).

der

English has not one FOR TO construction but several. These several constructions are interrelated and form a chain, or rather a family, of constructions, with identical or similar components recurring in more or less similar configurations. […] The composition of this family can be represented as follows: (1) Personal volition (e.g. I want very much for Peter to be present.) (2) Volition expressed in directives (e.g. He gave orders for his family to be summoned.) (3) Impersonal (unspecified) volition (e.g. It is necessary for Peter to be present.) […]

1988, Anna Wierzbicka, “FOR TO versus TO”, in The Semantics of Grammar (Studies in Language Companion Series; 18), Amsterdam, Philadelphia, Pa.: John Benjamins Publishing Company, →ISBN, →ISSN, pages 126–127:

(linguistics) A concept that distinguishes whether or not the subject or agent intended something.


insular

en-adj

insular (comparative more insular, superlative most insular)

more insular (comparative)
most insular (superlative)

Borrowed from Latin insularis (“of or belonging to an island”), from insula (“an island”), perhaps, from in (“in”) + salum (“the main sea”).

bor

(linguistics, anthropology) (often with a capital letter) Relating to the varieties of a language or languages spoken chiefly on islands. Insular Latin, Latin as it was spoken in Britain and Ireland. Insular Celtic, the Celtic languages of Britain, Ireland and also Brittany, as opposed to those spoken in mainland Europe other than Brittany. Insular Scandinavian, relating to the Icelandic and Faroese languages as opposed to the ones spoken in Sweden, Denmark and Norway.


inanimate

en-adj

inanimate (comparative more inanimate, superlative most inanimate)

more inanimate (comparative)
most inanimate (superlative)

Inherited from Middle English inanimate, from Late Latin inanimātus, from Latin in- + animātus.


apocope

en-noun

apocope (countable and uncountable, plural apocopes)

Learned borrowing from Late Latin apocopē, from Ancient Greek ἀποκοπή (apokopḗ), ἀποκόπτω (apokóptō, “cut off”).

lbor

(phonetics, prosody, strictly) The loss or omission of the last vowel in a word, together with any consonants that follow it.


circular definition

en-noun

circular definition (plural circular definitions)

Saying that obscenity is indecent and then saying something is indecent if it's obscene is a circular definition.

(semantics) A definition relying directly or indirectly on the term being defined.


shingle

From Middle English shyngel, from Old English sċingul, a late variant of sċindel, from Proto-West Germanic *skindulā, borrowed from Late Latin scindula, from Latin scandula, from Proto-Indo-European *sked- (“to split, scatter”), from *sek- (“to cut”). Doublet of shindle.

der

In the second phase, we produce a list of all the shingles and the documents they appear in, sorted by shingle value.

1997 September 1, Andrei Z. Broder, Steven C. Glassman, Mark S. Manasse, Geoffrey Zweig, “Syntactic clustering of the Web”, in Computer Networks and ISDN Systems (Papers from the Sixth International World Wide Web Conference), volume 29, number 8, →DOI, →ISSN, pages 1157–1166:

computational linguistics
computational linguistics

(computational linguistics) A word-based n-gram.


unacceptable

en-adj

unacceptable (comparative more unacceptable, superlative most unacceptable)

more unacceptable (comparative)
most unacceptable (superlative)

From Middle English unacceptabylle, equivalent to un- + acceptable.

(linguistics) not conforming to accepted usage


resonant

Borrowed from French résonnant or Latin resonāre (“to resound”).

(phonetics) A sonorant vowel or consonant.


animate

animate (comparative more animate, superlative most animate)

more animate (comparative)
most animate (superlative)

fixed

antonym(s) of “possessing the quality or ability of motion”

From Middle English animate, from Latin animatus, past participle of animare (“to fill with breath, quicken, encourage, animate”), from anima (“breath”); see anima.

عَاقِل

"intelligent", used for intelligent beings

Nouns can be singular or plural, and one of two genders, animate or inanimate.

(grammar, of a noun or pronoun) having a referent that is considered alive (this generally includes humans and animals, often also gods, plants, etc.)

(grammar) Inflected to agree with an animate noun or pronoun.


syllabic

syllabic (comparative more syllabic, superlative most syllabic)

more syllabic (comparative)
most syllabic (superlative)

From Medieval Latin syllabicus, from Ancient Greek συλλαβικός (sullabikós), from συλλαβή (sullabḗ, “syllable”).

(linguistics) Designating a sound that is or can be the most sonorant segment of a syllable, as a vowel or a resonant. In the word riddle ([ɹɪdl̩]), the two syllabic sounds are [ɪ] and [l̩].


pyrrhic

From Latin pyrrhichius, from Ancient Greek πυρρίχιος (purrhíkhios), from πυρρίχη (purrhíkhē, “war dance”).

(prosody) Of or characterized by pyrrhics (metrical feet with two short syllables).


pyrrhic

(prosody) A metric foot with two short or unaccented syllables.


cluster

→ Catalan: clúster

→ French: cluster

→ German: Cluster

→ Italian: cluster

→ Japanese: クラスター (kurasutā)

→ Portuguese: cluster

→ Russian: кла́стер (kláster)

→ Spanish: clúster

→ Swedish: kluster

High Performance Computing Center, Stuttgart

The noun is derived from Middle English cluster (“bunch, cluster, spray; compact body or mass, ball”) [and other forms], from Old English cluster, clyster (“cluster, bunch, branch”), from Proto-Germanic *klas-, *klus- (“to clump, lump together”) (possibly from Proto-Indo-European *gel- (“to ball up; to clench; to amass”)) + *-þrą (suffix forming nouns denoting an instrument or tool). The English word is probably a doublet of clot.
The verb is derived from the noun.
cognates
* Dutch klister (“cluster”) (dialectal)
* Icelandic klasi (“cluster; bunch of grapes”)
* Low German Kluuster (“cluster”)
* Swedish kluster (“cluster”)

nb...

closter, clostre, clouster, clowster, clustre, clustyr

բույլ

examples of clusters would include in accordance with, so far, and the results of

A bunch or group of several discrete items that are close to each other.

(linguistics) Synonym of lexical bundle (“a sequence of two or more words that occur in a language with high frequency but are not idiomatic”)

lexical bundle

The word scrub begins with a cluster of three consonants.

(phonetics) A pronounceable group of consonants that occur together: a consonant cluster.

shluk

group of pronounceable consonants that occur together


preterite

From Middle English preterit, from Old French preterit (13th century), from Latin praeteritum (as in tempus praeteritum (“time past”)), the past participle of praetereō (“I go by, go past”), itself from praeter (“beyond, before, above, more than”) (comparative of prae (“before”)) + itum (the past participle of eō (“I go”)).

The Dravidian preterite tense is ordinarily formed, like the present, by annexing the pronominal signs to the preterite verbal participle.

1913 [1856], Robert Caldwell, edited by J.L. Wyatt and T. Ramakrishna Pillai, A Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian, or, South-Indian Family of Languages, 3rd edition, London: Kegan Paul, →OCLC, page 496:

(grammar, of a tense) Showing an action at a determined moment in the past.

минал

showing an action at a determined moment in the past


preterite

When simple verbs redouble the preterite, the compounds drop the first syllable, as: Pello, pĕpŭli, to drive away, to beat back; Repello, rĕpŭli, and not rĕpĕpŭli, to drive back, to repel.

1772, John Mair, A Radical Vocabulary, Latin and English, Edinburgh: A. Murray, and J. Cochran, for A. Kincaid & W. Creech, and J. Bell, →OCLC, page 101:

Nevertheless, a small amount of variation still exists in one area of standard English verbal morphology: the preterite and past participle forms of certain irregular verbs.

1994, Dieter Stein, Ingrid Tieken-Boon van Ostade, Towards a Standard English: 1600-1800, Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, →ISBN, page 115:

(grammar) A grammatical tense or verb form serving to denote events that took place or were completed in the past.


present perfect

(grammar) A perfect tense that expresses action in the past (usually completed) with consequences in the present time.

現在完成

tense that expresses action in the past with consequences in the present time


Caucasian

Johann Friedrich Blumenbach
Mugan plain
Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky
The Big Lebowski

From Caucasus (“mountain range in Eastern Europe between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea”) + -ian (suffix forming adjectives with the sense ‘from, related to, or like’, or forming nouns with the sense ‘one from, belonging to, relating to, or like’). The anthropological sense (no longer regarded as scientific) was popularized by the German anthropologist and physician Johann Friedrich Blumenbach (1752–1840), based on the belief that the first humans originated from there.
Noun sense 2 (“cocktail”) was popularized by the film The Big Lebowski (1998): see the quotation.

nb...

Praemissa est epistola ad virvm perillvstrem Iosephvm Banks baronetvm regiae Societatis Londin. praesidem

(linguistics) A group of languages spoken in the Caucasus region.


fossil

From French fossile, from Latin fossilis (“something which has been dug up”), from fodio (“I dig up”).


coercion

en-noun

coercion (countable and uncountable, plural coercions)

Inherited from Middle English cohercioun, from Old French cohercion, from Latin coercitiō (“magisterial coercion”), from past participle coercitus of coerceō (“to restrain, coerce”), from co- (“with”) + arceō (“to shut in, enclose”); see coerce.

der

But often the pieces of information do not fit together and have to be shifted in meaning to confirm with the rest of the sentence. These shifts are called coercion

2008, Oliver Bott, “Doing It Again and Again May Be Difficult, But It Depends on What You Are Doing”, in Proceedings of the 27th West Coast Conference on Formal Linguistics, page 63:

...a conversion of mass nouns into count readings according to sorter and portion coercion is only possible if the denotation of a mass noun already comprises minimal parts into which the noun can be subdivided.

2016, Susanne Mohr, “From Accra to Nairobi – the use of pluralized mass nouns in East and West African postcolonial Englishes”, in Daniel Schmidt-Brücken, Susanne Schuster, Marina Wienberg, editors, Aspects of (Post)Colonial Linguistics, Berlin: DeGruyter, →OCLC, page 161:

(linguistics, semantics) The process by which the meaning of a word or other linguistic element is reinterpreted to match the grammatical context.


metafunction

(linguistics) A group of grammatical systems that make meanings of a related kind.


vii

(grammar) Initialism of verb inanimate intransitive.


dominate

en-verb

dominate (third-person singular simple present dominates, present participle dominating, simple past and past participle dominated)

dominates (present singular third-person)
dominating (participle present)
dominated (participle past)
dominated (past)

From Latin dominātus, perfect active participle of dominor (“rule, have dominion”), from dominus (“lord, master”); see dominus.

(computing, graph theory, linguistics) To precede another node of a directed graph in all paths from the start of the graph to the other node.


glide

glide (third-person singular simple present glides, present participle gliding, simple past glided or glid or (archaic) glode, past participle glided or glid or glidden or (archaic) glode)

glides (present singular third-person)
gliding (participle present)
glided (past)
glid (past)
glode (archaic past)
glided (participle past)
glid (participle past)
glidden (participle past)
glode (archaic participle past)

From Middle English gliden, from Old English glīdan, from Proto-West Germanic *glīdan, from Proto-Germanic *glīdaną, from Proto-Indo-European *ǵʰleydʰ-.
Cognate with West Frisian glide, glydzje, Low German glieden, Dutch glijden, German gleiten, Norwegian Nynorsk gli, Danish glide, Swedish glida, Finnish liitää.

(phonetics) To pass with a glide, as the voice.


glide

(phonology) A transitional sound, especially a semivowel.


loanword

A calque of German Lehnwort, equivalent to loan + word. Compare West Frisian lienwurd, Dutch leenwoord, Danish låneord, Swedish lånord, Icelandic lánsorð.

The word “exit” is a loanword from Latin.

New words, and particularly loanwords, are simplified, and hence naturalized in American much more quickly than in English. Employé has long since become employee in our newspapers, and asphalte has lost its final e, and manœuvre has become maneuver, and pyjamas has become pajamas.

1921 [1919], H. L. Mencken, chapter 32, in The American Language, 2nd edition, New York: Alfred A. Knopf, →ISBN, →OCLC:

This searching was facilitated by the author's knowledge of the vagaries of Anglo-Indian spelling and the numerous colonial-era transliteration systems used for loanwords from Indian languages.

2018, James Lambert, “Anglo-Indian slang in dictionaries on historical principles”, in World Englishes, volume 37, page 251:

A word directly taken into one language from another one with little or no adaptation.


corpus fetishism

Probably coined by linguist Geoffrey Pullum. http://itre.cis.upenn.edu/~myl/languagelog/archives/000122.htmlhttp://itre.cis.upenn.edu/~myl/languagelog/archives/000058.html

(linguistics) An insistence that the only valid source of illustrative examples of words or language constructs is from the corpus (existing body of literature) of the language


homorganic

/ˌhɑmɔɹˈɡænɪk/

/ˌhɒmɔːˈɡænɪk/

Two identical consonants (redoubled) in second and third position are frequently found (they are called verba mediae geminatae), but two homorganic consonants are not.

2011 March 1, Eulàlia Vernet i Pons, “Semitic Root Incompatibilities and Historical Linguistics”, in Journal of Semitic Studies, volume 56, number 1, →DOI, page 4

place of articulation
place of articulation

(phonetics) Of consonants: having the same place of articulation. For example, labial m, b, p, alveolar n, d, t, velar ŋ, g, k. Indic alphabets such as Devanagari, as well as the Korean hangul alphabet, are rationally arranged so that homorganic consonants are grouped together.


homorganic

/ˌhɑmɔɹˈɡænɪk/

/ˌhɒmɔːˈɡænɪk/

(phonetics) A consonant having the same place of articulation as another.


agrammatism

en-noun

agrammatism (countable and uncountable, plural agrammatisms)

From Ancient Greek ἀγράμματος (agrámmatos, “illiterate”) + -ism (English suffix).


sonorous

en-adj

sonorous (comparative more sonorous, superlative most sonorous)

more sonorous (comparative)
most sonorous (superlative)

Borrowed from Latin sonōrus, from sonor (“sound”), early 17th century.

Vowels are more sonorous (acoustically powerful) than consonants, and so we perceive them as louder and lasting longer.

2001, Michael Dobrovolsky, “Phonetics: The Sounds of Language”, in William O'Grady, John Archibald, Mark Aronoff, Janie Rees-Miller, editors, Contemporary Linguistics, →ISBN, page 21:

(linguistics, phonetics) Produced with a relatively open vocal tract and relatively little obstruction of airflow.


conditional perfect

en-noun

conditional perfect (plural conditional perfects)

(grammar) A combination of the conditional mood and the perfect tense, roughly corresponding to English 'I would have...'


controller

/kənˈtɹəʊlə/

From Middle English countreroller, from Anglo-Norman contreroulour and Middle French contreroleur (French contrôleur), from Medieval Latin contrārotulātor, from *contrārotulāre (from which control). By surface analysis, control + -er.

The choice of controller is determined by the matrix verb. If, as in (30b) and (3la), the main verb does not subcategorize for an OBJ, then the controller is the matrix SUBJ. In this case the complement clause is interpreted as having the same subject as the main clause. If the main verb does take an OBJ, the controller is the matrix patient.

2004, Paul K. Kroeger, Analyzing Syntax: A Lexical-Functional Approach, Cambridge University Press (hardback) (paperback), chapter 5.4, 117

(linguistics) The subject of a control verb. See Control (linguistics)


semelfactive aspect

semelfactive aspect (plural semelfactive aspects)

(grammar) A subclass of perfective verbs that denotes a momentary or punctiliar action (e.g., to sneeze, to blink).


pf.

perfective aspect
perfective aspect#English

(grammar) Abbreviation of perfective aspect.


iterative aspect

(grammar) A subclass of imperfective verbs that denote a continuously repeated action. An example in English would be the iterative verb sniffle, as opposed to the noniterative sniff.


aorist aspect

(grammar) A temporal feature of the verb which denotes the speaker's standpoint of the event described by the verb, as from outside of the event and seeing it as a completed whole.


imperfective aspect

2007, Almut Hintze, A Zoroastrian Liturgy: The Worship in Seven Chapters (Yasna 35—41), Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, page 240,
If the root meaning is iterative or durative, such as 'to go', the verb belongs to the imperfective aspect and forms a root present.

2012, David Holton, Peter Mackridge, Irene Philippaki-Warburton, Vassilios Spyropoulos (reviser), Greek: A Comprehensive Grammar of the Modern Language, Taylor & Francis (Routledge), 2nd Edition, page 286,
The imperfective aspect in Greek presents the action or state expressed by the verb either as a single but continuous event (progressively) or as a repetitive or habitual one.

2012, Zygmunt Frajzyngier, A Grammar of Wandala, Walter De Gruyter (De Gruyter Mouton), page 149,
Subject pronouns precede the simple form of the verb and the reduplicated form of the verb in the imperfective aspect.

(grammar) A feature of a verb which denotes that its action or condition does not have a fixed temporal boundary, but is habitual, unfinished, continuous, repetitive or in progress.


perfective aspect

(grammar) A feature of the verb which denotes viewing the event the verb describes as a completed whole, rather than from within the event as it unfolds. For example, "she sat down" as opposed to "she was sitting down". Since the focus is on the completion of what is expressed by the verb, this aspect is generally associated with the past and future tenses. This term is often used interchangeably with aorist aspect. This is not to be confused with the perfect tense.


swear word

When I heard swear words from the next room, I decided to keep my distance.

A word considered obscene and vulgar or offensive.

the plurals of all the synonyms for the singular form


creolize

en-verb

creolize (third-person singular simple present creolizes, present participle creolizing, simple past and past participle creolized)

creolizes (present singular third-person)
creolizing (participle present)
creolized (participle past)
creolized (past)

(linguistics) To cause a pidgin language rapidly expanding in vocabulary and grammatical rules to become ultimately a creole.


Brit

1901, either a shortening of Britisher or Briton, or a back-formation from British.

(lexicography) Abbreviation of British English.


creolization

en-noun

creolization (countable and uncountable, plural creolizations)

/ˌkɹiːəʊ̆laɪˈzeɪʃə̆n/

(linguistics) the process of a pidgin rapidly expanding its vocabulary and grammatical rules, ultimately becoming a creole.


closed compound

closed compound (plural closed compounds)

(grammar) A compound word without spaces in it.

(yhteenkirjoitettu) yhdyssana

in Finnish, but not in English, all compounds are written without spaces; see open compound


open compound

Two-word compounds--named open compounds in Edward N. Teall's Meet Mr. Hyphen--are in fact very common.

Thus such words, to give only a very few examples, as pismire, baise-mains, favonian, hearstling, happenstance, chanticleer, and open compounds like guardhouse lawyer,sidewalk superintendent and slush fund are registered without any kind of status label ...

1966, Ladislas Országh, Deficiencies of Modern English Dictionaries in English Studies Today, Fourth Serieshttps://books.google.com/books?id=ftJKfD7WKwcC&pg=PA71&dq=%22open+compounds%22

Further, the language permits open compounds, as indicated above, so that we might conjecture such spellings as "battlecry, battle-field, battle ground, battle-piece and battlewise."

1971, Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science, Volume 5https://books.google.com/books?id=dvWkHF_6NAgC&pg=PA52&dq=%22open+compounds%22

Should the Yiddish noun ris-uf 'start' be written as an open or a hyphenated compound? The MEYYED gives it as an open compound (ris uf) in the English- Yiddish ...

The examples also exemplify the three forms that compound words take: 1) open compound (snail mail); 2) hyphenated compound (eagle-eyed); and 3) solid compound (bookworm).

1992, Sheila Davis, The Songwriter's Idea Bookhttps://books.google.com/books?id=6hhjDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT143

A subentry is an open compound (e.g., express contract) whose major element is the noun (contract at whose alphabetical place the subentry is entered.

1996, Merriam-Webster's Dictionary of Lawhttps://books.google.com/books?id=JYs74quLWLIC&pg=PR7&dq=%22open+compound%22

In an open compound, the component words are separate, with no hyphen (well fed; wagon train).

2008, Oxford American Large Print Dictionaryhttps://books.google.com/books?id=V585_u2mRG0C&pg=PA1398&dq=%22open+compound%22

Some compounds are written as space-separated words, which are called open compounds (e.g. hard drive), while others are written as single words, which are called closed compounds (e.g. wallpaper). In this paper, we shall focus only on closed compounds because open compounds do not require further splitting.

2011, Language-independent Compound Splitting with Morphological Operationshttps://static.googleusercontent.com/media/research.google.com/en//pubs/archive/37093.pdf

(grammar) A compound word with spaces in it, for example, high school, school bus, or science fiction.

erikseen kirjoitettu yhdyssana

but note that Finnish has no open compounds


sonnet

Borrowed from Middle French sonnet, from Italian sonetto, from Old Occitan sonet (“a song”), diminutive of son (“song, sound”), from Latin sonus (“sound”).

A fixed verse form of Italian origin consisting of fourteen lines that are typically five-foot iambics and rhyme according to one of a few prescribed schemes.


cursive

en-adj

cursive (comparative more cursive, superlative most cursive)

more cursive (comparative)
most cursive (superlative)

Borrowed from Middle French cursif, from Medieval Latin cursīvus, from Latin cursus.

(grammar) Of or relating to a grammatical aspect relating to an action that occurs in a straight line (in space or time).


Finnophone

(rare) Finnish-speaking; speaking the Finnish language, either natively or by adoption.


compound word

A Compound Word, is that which is Compounded of two or more Words; as a Book-Seller, Compounded of Book and Seller; a Watch-man, of Watch and Man.

1700, A. Lane, A Key to the Art of Lettershttps://books.google.ccom/books?id=d81lAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA19&dq=%22compound+word%22

A word is a compound word when it is made up of two or more parts, each of which is a significant word by itself; as, apple-tree, tea-spoon, spend-thrift.

1858, Charles Peter Mason, English grammarhttps://books.google.com/books?id=XmoCAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA74&dq=%22compound+word%22

Thus it is found in English compound words, e.g. “elbow,” “rainbow,” “bow-net,” “bow-window,” “bow-knot,” “saddle-bow,” and by itself as the designation of a great variety of objects.

1911, “Bow”, in Encyclopædia Britannica:

Compound words contrast with words built up by the use of affixes. Thus, for example, re-use, substandard, hyperventilate, prehistoric and pro-communist woud not usually be counted as compound words ...

1994, James R. Hurford, Grammar: A Student's Guidehttps://books.google.com/books?id=ZaBKd8pT6kgC&pg=PA43&dq=%22compound+words%22

Some important vocabulary words your child needs to study are compound words. A compound word is made when two words are joined together to form a new word. For example, the word rainbow is made using the words rain and bow.

2014, Kelly Hackett, Compound Words--Banana Splits Literacy Center

As stated above, compound words are formed by joining two words into one word. Some compound words retain elements of the meanings of the two words. Examples include sunlight, flagpole, flying fish, and bridge-builder.

2018, Dale D. Johnson, Words: The Foundation of Literacyhttps://books.google.com/books?id=Jx9WDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT40&dq=%22compound+words%22

1784, Noah Webster, A Grammatical Institute of the English languagehttps://books.google.cz/books?id=S09gAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA8&dq=%22compound+word%22https://quod.lib.umich.edu/e/evans/N14876.0001.001/1:4?rgn=div1;submit=Go;subview=detail;type=simple;view=fulltext;q1=compound+word
A compound word is formed of two or more simple words; as, country-man, gold-smith, ink-horn; or of a simple word and a preposition; as, over-come, with-draw, dis-engage.

(linguistics) A word composed of two or more stems.

ទ្វយវាទ

tvĕəʼyĕəʼviət


approximation

en-noun

approximation (countable and uncountable, plural approximations)

/əˌpɹɔk.sɪˈmæɪ.ʃən/

[əˌpɹɔk.sɪˈmæɪ.ʃn̩]

For some loanwords borrowed from French into English, the standard English pronunciation is an approximation of the French, as with denoument.

(uncountable, countable) The act, process or result of approximating, as:

(linguistics) The act of producing a near-simulation of the pronunciation of a foreign language for a loanword therefrom, or any given pronunciation resulting from that act.


transcribe

en-verb

transcribe (third-person singular simple present transcribes, present participle transcribing, simple past and past participle transcribed)

transcribes (present singular third-person)
transcribing (participle present)
transcribed (participle past)
transcribed (past)

Learned borrowing from Latin trānscrībere (“to write again in another place, transcribe, copy”).

lbor

(linguistics) To represent speech by phonetic symbols.

տառադարձել

linguistics: to represent speech by phonetic symbols


deponent

From Latin dēpōnēns (“laying aside”), the present active participle of dēpōnō (“lay aside”), from dē- + pōnō (“put, place”). The name comes from the idea that such verbs were originally reflexive and then later "laid aside" their passive meanings.

(grammar, of a verb) Having passive grammatical form (that is, conjugating like the passive voice), but an active meaning.

異態

of a verb: having a passive form with an active meaning


tonal

en-adj

tonal (comparative more tonal, superlative most tonal)

more tonal (comparative)
most tonal (superlative)

(linguistics) Employing differences in pitch (tones) to distinguish differences in the meaning of otherwise similar words (words which would otherwise be homophonic).

tonaalinen

employing differences in pitch to distinguish differences in meaning


genealogical

genealogical (comparative more genealogical, superlative most genealogical)

more genealogical (comparative)
most genealogical (superlative)

Borrowed from French généalogique + -al.

(linguistics) Genetic (based on shared membership in a linguistic family).


percussive

percussive (comparative more percussive, superlative most percussive)

more percussive (comparative)
most percussive (superlative)

Two additional, and much rarer, percussive articulations are represented by symbols in the extIPA chart. Their exclusion from the main IPA chart is an indication that they do not seem to occur as typical forms of adult speech in any part of the world, although they may have some communicative function. The symbol, [ʬ], is used to transcribe a bilabial percussive sound, which might be described in lay terms as lip-smacking.

2013, Nigel Hewlett, Janet Mackenzie Beck, An Introduction to the Science of Phonetics, Routledge, →ISBN:

(phonetics) Produced by striking organs together, for example, smacking the lips or gnashing the teeth.


percussive

Percussives are articulations where two rigid or semirigid articulators are struck against each other to produce a short, sharp sound.

2014, Martin J. Ball, Nicole Muller, Phonetics for Communication Disorders, Psychology Press, →ISBN:


translative case

en-noun

translative case (plural translative cases)

(grammar) a form of declension that indicates a change in the state of a noun; the Estonian, Finnish and Hungarian languages have such a case

變格

case used to indicate a change in the state of a noun


translational

Relating to translation, in its various senses:

(translation studies) Relating the act of translating text etc. from one language into another.

преводен

relating to the act of translating text etc. from one language to another


transcription

transcription (countable and uncountable, plural transcriptions)

From Middle French transcription, or directly from Latin transcriptiōnem, from trānscrībō (“transcribe”).

While the sounds of the language [English] undergo constant change and growth, the writing system is rarely reviewed or adapted to recent changes in speech. Consequently, there is a patent need for a transcription in linguistic research and dictionaries.

1977, Ali M. Al Kasimi, Linguistics and Bilingual Dictionaries, Brill Archive, →ISBN, page 37:

Something that has been transcribed, including:

(linguistics) A representation of speech sounds as phonetic symbols.


translative

en-adj

translative (comparative more translative, superlative most translative)

more translative (comparative)
most translative (superlative)

From Latin translativus (“that is to be transferred”). Compare French translatif.

der

(linguistics) Of, or relating to the translative case.


translative

(grammar) A word in the translative case.


monosyllabic

Borrowed from Late Latin monosyllabicus, from Latin monosyllabus, from Hellenistic Ancient Greek μονοσύλλαβος (monosúllabos). By surface analysis, monosyllable + -ic.

μονοσύλλαβος

Using monosyllables, speaking in monosyllables; curt.


monosyllabic

μονοσύλλαβος


split infinitive

en-noun

split infinitive (plural split infinitives)

Yeah, Ronnie! (or, the Split Infinitive of the Year, possibly the Century) – on being asked if the New York Times report was true that the 1983 deficit will be $124 billion, rather than the $91.5 billion in the Reagan budget … A: 'I couldn't answer until we have to, by law, shortly, in a couple of weeks, present an updated project.'

1982 April 4, Nick Clarke, quoting Alistair Cooke, “Keeping in Touch”, in Alistair Cooke: A Biography, 1st U.S. edition, New York, N.Y.: Arcade Publishing, published 2000, →ISBN, page 487:

The split infinitive was regrettable, but the writers of Star Trek came up with the phrase to capture the essential idea brought to mind at the mention of the words "frontier" and "pioneer": "to boldly go where no man has gone before."

1994, Patricia Nelson Limerick, “The Adventures of the Frontier in the Twentieth Century”, in James R. Grossman, editor, The Frontier in American Culture: An Exhibition at the Newberry Library, August 26, 1994 – January 7, 1995, Berkeley, Los Angeles, Calif.: University of California Press, →ISBN, page 89:

Such fetishes as insisting on It's I, not ending sentences with prepositions, and avoiding split infinitives are all dismissed as the nonsense they are.

2001, R[obert] L[awrence] Trask, “Introduction”, in Mind the Gaffe: The Penguin Guide to Common Errors in English (Penguin Reference Books), London: Penguin Books, →ISBN, page 17:

(grammar) An infinitive with one or more modifiers inserted between the to and the verb.

disigita infinitivo

an infinitive with one or more modifiers inserted between the to and the verb


realize

en-verb

realize (third-person singular simple present realizes, present participle realizing, simple past and past participle realized)

realizes (present singular third-person)
realizing (participle present)
realized (participle past)
realized (past)
realize (infinitive)

desc

→ Portuguese: realizar (“to realize, become aware of”) (semantic loan)

PIE word
 *reh₁ís
From real (adjective) + -ize (suffix denoting the making of what is indicated by the word it is attached to), possibly modelled after French réaliser, Middle French réaliser (“to make real; to convert (something) into assets or cash”), from real (“actual, real”) + -iser (suffix denoting the making of what is indicated by the word it is attached to). Real is derived from Old French reel, from Latin reālis (“actual, real”), from rēs (“deed; event; matter; thing”) (ultimately from Proto-Indo-European *reh₁ís (“goods; wealth”)) + -ālis (suffix forming adjectives of relationship).

أَدْرَكَ

(transitive) to become aware of or understand (a fact or situation); (intransitive) to become aware of or understand a fact or situation

tehdä todeksi

(transitive) to cause (something) to seem real; to present (something) clearly to the mind, a person, etc., so that it seems real; (intransitive) to cause to seem real

بَاعَ

(transitive) to convert (an asset or property) into a more easily usable form such as money, especially by selling the asset or property; (intransitive) to convert an asset or property into a more easily usable form such as money

The southern /v/ is realized as the voiced approximant [ʋ].

The phonetic realization of schwa varies; […] Many (probably most) speakers realize it as [ø] or [œ] in other contexts as well. In Midi French, schwa is realized more frequently than in northern varieties, including in word-final position, where it generally (but not always) corresponds to etymological /ə/.

2016, John Charles Smith, “French and Northern Gallo-Romance”, in Adam Ledgeway, Martin Maiden, editors, The Oxford Guide to the Romance Languages (Oxford Linguistics; Oxford Guides to the World’s Languages), Oxford, Oxfordshire: Oxford University Press, →ISBN, part III (Individual Structural Overviews), page 297, column 1:

(linguistics) To turn (an abstract linguistic object, especially a phoneme) into a speech sound actually used in a language.

realisoida

to turn (an abstract linguistic object) into a speech sound actually used in a language


amplification

en-noun

amplification (countable and uncountable, plural amplifications)

From Latin amplificātiō, from amplificō (“I amplify”); see amplify.
Etymology tree
Latin amplus
Latin -ficō
Latin amplificō
Latin -tiō
Latin amplificātiōlbor.
English amplification

etymon

(translation studies) A translation technique that involves adding content that is not present in the source text to the target text, usually to improve the fluency of the translation.


coalescence

en-noun

coalescence (countable and uncountable, plural coalescences)

(phonology) The merging of two segments into one.


script

script (countable and uncountable, plural scripts)

From Middle English scrit, borrowed from Old French escrit, from Latin scriptum (something written), from scrībō (“write”).

(linguistics) A system of writing adapted to a particular language or set of languages.


lax

en-adj

lax (comparative laxer, superlative laxest)

laxer (comparative)
laxest (superlative)

Borrowed from Latin laxus (“wide, roomy, loose”).

(linguistics) (of a vowel) Produced with relatively little constriction of the vocal tract.


rendaku

Borrowed from Japanese 連濁 (rendaku, “sequential voicing”).

bor

(linguistics) In the Japanese language, a phenomenon which governs the voicing of the initial consonant of the non-initial portion of a compound or prefixed word. An example is 時々 (ときどき, tokidoki), where the second, iterative element "-toki" becomes "-doki" and 折り紙 (おりがみ, origami) where the word 紙 (かみ, kami; paper) becomes "gami".


modal auxiliary

en-noun

modal auxiliary (plural modal auxiliaries)

(grammar) A verb used to express the mood (or tense) of another verb.


gnomic

en-adj

gnomic (comparative more gnomic, superlative most gnomic)

more gnomic (comparative)
most gnomic (superlative)

From French gnomique, ultimately from Ancient Greek γνωμικός (gnōmikós), from γνώμη (gnṓmē, “thought, judgement”), akin to γιγνώσκω (gignṓskō, “know”).

gnomic aspect

(grammar) Expressing general truths or aphorisms.


displacement

From French déplacement. Morphologically displace + -ment.

водоизместимост

the quantity of anything, as water, displaced by a floating body, as by a ship

there is no replacement for displacement

(grammar) The capability of a communication system to refer to things that are not present (that existed or will exist at another time, or that exist at another location).


indicative mood

en-noun

indicative mood (plural indicative moods)

(grammar) The mood of a verb used in ordinary, factual, or objective statements.


headword

From head + word. Compare West Frisian haadwurd (“noun, substantive, headword”), Dutch hoofdwoord (“headword”), German Hauptwort (“noun, substantive, headword”), Swedish huvudord (“headword, keyword”).

cog

In "a very discerning car shopper", "shopper" is the headword.

(grammar) Any word which may be modified by an adjunct; often, the core noun of a noun phrase.


past anterior

(grammar) A compound tense used in literary French, Spanish, Portuguese and Italian, in function a pluperfect, and in form composed of the conjunction of the simple past tense of an auxiliary verb (avoir, être) with the past participle. Example: Après que la femme et l'homme l'eurent remercié = After the woman and the man had thanked him

pasau anterior

a compound tense used in literary French, Spanish, and Italian


partitive case

(grammar) A noun case used to indicate that an object is affected only partially by the verb, or that the effect is not real. It often corresponds roughly to the English words "some" or "any." It is similar in many ways to the genitive case. Some languages that make use of the partitive case include Finnish and Estonian.


prothesis

en-noun

prothesis (countable and uncountable, plural protheses)

From Late Latin prothesis, prosthesis, alteration (dropping the ‘s’) from Ancient Greek πρόσθεσις (prósthesis, “addition, augmentation”), (English prosthesis) from προστίθημι (prostíthēmi, “I add”), from πρός (prós, “towards”) + τίθημι (títhēmi, “I place”), from Proto-Indo-European *próti, *préti + *dʰédʰeh₁- (“to be putting, to be placing”).
However, often confused for a descendant of the Ancient Greek word πρόθεσις (próthesis, “a preposing, preposition”) (without the σ (s)), which is instead the source of a different term – see alternative etymology, below.

der

(phonology) The prepending of phonemes at the beginning of a word without changing its morphological structure, as in Spanish esfera from Greek (via Latin) sphaera (“sphere”) (without prothesis the word would have become *sfera).

إِبْدَاء

the addition of a sound or syllable at the beginning of a word without changing the word's meaning or the rest of its structure


confirmation name

en-noun

confirmation name (plural confirmation names)

(Christianity) A name given usually by a pastor to a confirmand during a confirmation ceremony in various Christian denominations.