ค่ะ

From ข้า (kâa, “servant, I/me”) in พระเจ้าข้า (“lit. my lord”) or เจ้าข้า (jâo-kâa, “lit. my lord”). Compare with other Tai languages in which a self-deprecating pronoun literally meaning "servant" or "slave" can be used as a polite particle and/or to say "yes" such as Lao ຂ້ານ້ອຍ (khān ʼa nya), Lü ᦃᦾᧉ (ẋoay²), Khün ᨡ᩶ᩣ, and Shan ၶႃႈ (khāa). Also compare with Northern Thai ᨧᩮᩢ᩶ᩣ (“lord, you”) which has the opposite meaning of ᨡ᩶ᩣ (“servant, I/me”), a cognate of ข้า (kâa), and can be used as a polite particle or to say "yes."

cog

Lü ᦃᦾᧉ (ẋoay²)

(formerly used by noblemen, now often employed by women) used at the end of an indicative expression, request, or wish.

formerly used by noblemen; now often employed by women; formerly used by noblemen; now often employed by women


được

Non-Sino-Vietnamese reading of Chinese 得 (“to get, to obtain”, SV: đắc).
Central-Southern đặng has mostly been displaced by this word.

der

SV: <i class="Latn mention" lang="vi">đắc</i>

vi-etym-sino

Anh ta nói và viết được tiếng Anh.

Nhưng tôi còn ham muốn những cái thú mà một cô thiếu nữ không đem đến được.

1938, Thạch Lam, “Nắng trong vườn [Sunlight in the garden]”, in Đời nay [This life]:

But I also desired things a young girl cannot give me.

particle that expresses ability, possibility


vào

From Northern Middle Vietnamese ꞗĕào, ꞗĕaò. Compare the Central-Southern form vô.
The Northern Old Vietnamese form is attested in Phật thuyết đại báo phụ mẫu ân trọng kinh (佛說大報父母恩重經) as 包 (SV: bao), showing that diphthongization already took place in these dialects by then. The Central-Southern form vô started showing up on texts much later, spelled chiefly as 無 (SV: vô), inherited from unattested non-Northern Old Vietnamese dialects without diphthongization.
The usage of vào (especially in writing) by speakers of Central-Southern dialects can be contributed to borrowing from Northern dialects. On the other hand, the undiphthongized Southern form with palatal initial latter spread to the Northern and Central dialects as an interjection.
Most prepositions in Vietnamese were originally verbs: cho (“to give; for”), đến (“to come; to”), tới (“to arrive; to”), lên (“to go up; onto”), ở (“to stay; at, in”), theo (“to follow; according to”), về (“to return; about”).

Làm nhanh vào!

Mặc thật ấm vào kẻo lạnh.

Used at the end of a clause or sentence to ask the listener to do something vigorously.

Chơi lắm vào, bây giờ thi trượt.
Played so much – now your test scores are falling.

Ăn kẹo cho lắm vào để bị đau bụng.

You ate so much candy that you got a stomach ache.

Used at the end of a clause of sentence, usually after lắm or nhiều, to speak critically or reproachfully about excess, implying obvious bad consequences.


dalej

See the etymology of the corresponding lemma form.


قد

ar-particle

قَدْ • (qad)

Judeo-Arabic: קד (qad)

From the root ق د د (q-d-d) in the sense of being a thing separated or cut apart, a thing distinct with its own measure and shape, a defined piece; extended semantically to a secure definite thing, a certainty, hence the past tense implying a thing has already been set or definitive.
The non-past tense stems from the idea of something intended, likely expected, planned to be, measured to occur, or cut out to happen.

قَدْ وَصَلَ

كَانَ (قَدْ) وَصَلَ ― kāna (qad) waṣala ― he had arrived

سَيَكُونُ (قَدْ) وَصَلَ ― sayakūnu (qad) waṣala ― he will have arrived

وَلَقَدْ كُنتُمْ تَمَنَّوْنَ الْمَوْتَ مِن قَبْلِ أَن تَلْقَوْهُ فَقَدْ رَأَيْتُمُوهُ وَأَنتُمْ تَنظُرُونَ

You used to wish for death before you could meet it, and just now, you could see it when were looking ahead.

(in the past tense) Indicates nearness in time or recentness, recently, just now

قَدْ يَكُونُ كَذٰلِكَ

إِنْ سَأَلْتَهُ ٱلْمَالَ فَقَدْ يُعْطِيكَ.

If you ask him for money, he may give you.

(in the non-past tense) Indicates nonveridicality, might, could, may

قَدْ يَعْلَمُ اللَّهُ الْمُعَوِّقِينَ مِنكُمْ وَالْقَائِلِينَ لِإِخْوَانِهِمْ هَلُمَّ إِلَيْنَا ۖ وَلَا يَأْتُونَ الْبَأْسَ إِلَّا قَلِيلًا

God does know the hinderers among you and the ones telling their brethren, "Over here!" These fight in wars only rarely.

(in the non-past tense, obsolete) Expresses emphasis


قد

قِد (canonical)
قد (canonical)
gid (romanization)
gad (romanization)

(different pronunciation)

قِدْ كَلَّمْتُه عَنْ المَوْضُوع

I've [already] spoken to him about the topic


niʼ

From Proto-Athabaskan *nʸənˀ (“earth, world, ground, floor”).

inh

the late (following the name of a recently deceased person), deceased


noa

merely, suddenly, unintentionally, etc. Denotes an absence of limitations or conditions. (Follows immediately after the word.)


noa

From Old Frisian nā. Cognates include West Frisian nee and English no.


noa

Expresses the unimportance of the preceding word; just, mere, only


jalla

From Arabic يَاٱللَّٰه (yāllāh). By surface analysis, ja + Alla, literally “O God!”.

Arabic يَاٱللَّٰه (yāllāh)

surf

Jalla jkun hemm aktar nies bħalek.

If only there were more people like you.

Jalla tistrieħ fis-sliem.

Followed by an imperfect verb, it expresses the optative, i.e. a wish or request.


але

але изи улмем годымак авам ойлен ыле


ете

. Cognate with Bulgarian ето (eto) and Serbo-Croatian ето／eto.

Ете ме.

Ете ти го чадорот.

Ете ги и децата.

there, there it is, there you are, voilà (presenting something)


כלום

head

כְּלוּם • (k'lum)

כְּלוּם (canonical)
k'lum (romanization)

Talmud Bavli, Maseches Pesachim 87b
כלום אדם זורע סאה אלא להכניס כמה כורין

A man sows a se'a but to gain several korim...? [i.e., Does a man sow a small amount for a reason other than to gain many times the original amount?]

(archaic) Used to turn a statement of fact into a question of fact.


จ้ะ

Compare Khmer ចាស (caah), ចា៎ះ (caah), ច៎ះ (ច៎ះ).

ค่ะ ค่ะ#Thai


น่ะ

ตอนนั้นป้าออกไปซื้อของข้างนอกน่ะ

At that time, auntie went shopping outside.

dtɔɔn nán bpâa ɔ̀ɔk bpai sʉ́ʉ kɔ̌ɔng kâang-nɔ̂ɔk nâ

(colloquial) particle used at the end of a sentence to make it softer, more persuasive or less abrupt.

หนังสือเล่มนี้น่ะ แพงมากเลย
nǎng-sʉ̌ʉ lêm níi nâ · pɛɛng mâak ləəi
This book is pricey.

ตอนที่พูดเรื่องนี้ออกไปน่ะ สีหน้าเขาดูไม่ดีเท่าไหร่
dtɔɔn tîi pûut rʉ̂ʉang níi ɔ̀ɔk bpai nâ · sǐi-nâa kǎo duu mâi dii tâo-rài
When [I] told him about this, he looks unhappy.

(colloquial) particle used after a noun or a phrase to highlight it as the topic of the sentence.


คะ

(formerly used by noblemen, now often employed by women) used at the end of an expression of doubt, interrogation, or suggestion.


นะ

อะไรนะ

(particle used to make a sentence seem softer, more persuasive or less abrupt)


ので

今日は日曜日なので、学校に行きません。

Kyō wa nichiyōbi na no de, gakkō ni ikimasen.

Because it's Sunday, I won't go to school.


dạ

dạ • (㖡, 也, 唯, 啫)

vi-particle

dạ • (㖡, 也, 唯, 啫)

LL-Q9199 (vie)-Jessica Nguyen (Pamputt)-dạ.wav

giạ (northern Vietnam, southern Vietnam)

(chiefly Southern Vietnam) yes (answers a question)

Dạ vâng ạ.

An initial particle to express politeness and respect.


nagh

From Old Irish nach, from Proto-Celtic *nekʷos (“someone, something”).

inh

Nagh by chooinee lhieu?

Nagh vel eh braew!

Nagh vel enney ayd urree?

Nagh vel fys ayd eer er shen?

Nagh vel oo er dty hickyraghey foast?


пусть

head

пусть • (pustʹ)

Пусть он пи́шет

Пусть она́ не ду́мает, что мы о ней забы́ли.

Let her not think that we forgot about her.

Pustʹ oná ne dúmajet, što my o nej zabýli.

Пусть он вспомнит девушку простую,
Пусть услышит, как она поёт,
Пусть он землю бережет родную,
А любовь Катюша сбережёт.

1938, “Катюша (Katyusha)”, Mikhail Isakovsky (lyrics), Matvey Blanter (music):

Let him remember the simple girl,
Let him hear what she sings,
Let him safeguard dear homeland,
While Katyusha safeguards love.

Pustʹ on vspomnit devušku prostuju,
Pustʹ uslyšit, kak ona pojót,
Pustʹ on zemlju berežet rodnuju,
A ljubovʹ Katjuša sberežót.

пусть X (икс) равно́ двум ― pustʹ X (iks) ravnó dvum ― let X be 2


ခင်ဗျား

Contraction of သခင်ဘုရား (sa.hkangbhu.ra:, “master lord”).

contraction of

နင်

addressed to someone younger than the speaker

used by females when addressing another female of same age


ရှင်

Contraction of အသျှင် (a.hsyang, “lord”).


လာ

From Proto-Sino-Tibetan *la-j ~ ra (“to come”). Cognate with Old Chinese 來 (OC *m·rɯːɡ, “idem”).

inh

word suffixed to a verb to convey the notion of beginning something: begin, start, etc.


နဲ့

မသွားပါနဲ့။
ma.swa:panai.||
Please don’t go!

(colloquial) (used with မ (ma.) to form a negative imperative)


သူ

From Proto-Sino-Tibetan *su ~ s-lu (“who; indefinite pronoun; remote third-person pronoun”) (STEDT). Cognate with Tibetan སུ (su, “who”), as well as လူ (lu, “person”).

word used to designate the nature of a female's status, locality


လား

From Proto-Lolo-Burmese *la² (“question particle”), from Proto-Sino-Tibetan *la-y (“idem”). Compare perhaps Old Chinese 與 (OC *la, *laʔ, *las), 歟 (OC *la, *laʔ, *las, “idem”) (STEDT).

ဒီအိမ်လား

Interrogative particle used with a noun to form a yes/no question.


ရေး

Inherited from Old Burmese ရိယ်း (riy), from Proto-Sino-Tibetan *b-rəj (“to draw, mark; boundary”). Cognates include Tibetan འབྲི ('bri), Khumi Chin tärüte, Old Chinese 理 (OC *rɯʔ, “to cut jade, put in order, manage”) (STEDT).

och-l

particle suffixed to verb or noun to denote a state, action or skill


ပါ

လာပါ။
lapa||
Please come.

ကျွန်တော်က ဆရာပါ။
kywantauka. hca.rapa||
I am a teacher.

spoken to a stranger or superior, male speaker

(used with indicatives) particle used to indicate politeness


ဘူး

Compare with Chinese 不 (bù, “not”) and Mon ပုဟ်.

not (used after the verb, which is preceded by the particle မ (ma.))


စား

足 (OC *ʔsoɡs, *ʔsoɡ, “to satisfy; abundant”)


ကိုး

emphatic particle suffixed to words (same as ကို (kui))


ဦး

→ Shan: ဢူး (ʼúu)

From Proto-Sino-Tibetan *d-bu-s (“head”) (STEDT).

title prefixed to the name of a man or a monk

honorific term prefixed to the name of a monk

ဦး သန့်

(honorific) form of address for older men, roughly the average age of one's uncle; sir

particle suffixed to a verb or adjective to denote something offered first (as to a monk in deference); first (in season); first (sale of the day)

particle suffixed to verbs to denote a prerequisite, definite or imperative condition


လေး

particle indicating understatement, littleness, civility, or desirableness


လေး

word used as an ending in lyric poems, etc. for euphonic effect


-ge

Possibly cognate to Finnish -kin, Erzya -ке (-ke).


nên

From Dutch neen, from Middle Dutch neen, from Old Dutch *nēn.


noop

There are people right here in Disneyland who have gone to California by rail. They never saw Utah. Kansas, yes. Idaho, O.K., Nebraska, mabe. But Utah? Uh-uh! Noop! Negative! Nope! No! It's just not there.

1961, Connecticut State Prison (Somers, Conn.), The Bridge, volume 1, Connecticut State Prison, page 27:

when writing a message hmmmms..., aaahhhs, woos & ehs yip, yeap, yeah, yap, yup, yupe nope, noop & noope... are all nuance musts piping thru' the mail passage to carry a voice to understand signals

1997 December 4, Hsin Hsin Lin, “VOICES THRU' THE TUNNEL”, in In Bytes We Travel, World Scientific, →ISBN, page 30:

Lana (on phone): “Noop.” “Lana? Listen I--” “Noop.” “--need you to--” “Noop.” “--stop saying noop!” “Noop, Archer. Noop. And it's going to sound like I'm hanging up, but--” [dial tone]

2013 February 7, Adam Reed, Tesha Kondrat, “Midnight Ron” (4:31 from the start), in Archer, season 4, episode 4, spoken by Lana Kana (Aisha Tyler):

“HEY BROOKS, YOU EVER SEE ANYTHING LIKE THIS BEFORE?” “NOOP. USUALLY GUNSHOTS OR STABBINGS. NOTHING LIKE THIS. WHAT EVER HAPPENED TO THE DRUG-DEAL-GONE-BAD?” “WHAT MAKES YOU THINK IT'S NOT?”

2021 April 14, Paul Jenkins, Christina Z., The Complete Witchblade Vol. 2, volume 2, Image Comics, →ISBN:


spokojnie

Inherited from Old Polish spokojnie. By surface analysis, spokojny + -ie.

easily (without doubt nothing will change)


jednak

expresses an unexpected situation; after all


jednak

Clipping of jednako, from Old Polish jednako. First attested in 1500–1547.

ref

Maria Renata Mayenowa, Stanisław Rospond, Witold Taszycki, Stefan Hrabec, Władysław Kuraszkiewicz (2010-2023) “jednak”, in Słownik Polszczyzny XVI Wieku [A Dictionary of 16th Century Polish]

Szef powiedział, że jednak musimy przyjść do biura jutro.

The boss said that we have to come in to the office tomorrow after all.

expressing an unexpected situation; after all

(Middle Polish) indeed, really, actually

Anantapodoton, […] Niezupełne wyrzeczenie słów/ które yednák máyą być rozumiáne.

Currentem incitare, Nápomináć tego/ ktory yednák doſyć z ſiebie czini.

Vti Yáko gdy. Vtique, Yednak.

Attamen ‒ Wſzakze. Iednak

1588, A. Calepinus, Dictionarium decem linguarum, page 111a:

(Middle Polish) The meaning of this term is uncertain.


phần

LL-Q9199 (vie)-Jessica Nguyen (Pamputt)-phần.wav

Sino-Vietnamese word from 分 (“part; portion”), 份, from Middle Chinese 分 (bjunH), 份 (bjunH).
The huyền tone here is rather problematic. The regular tone derivation pattern, based on the original Middle Chinese tone and onset consonant would be as follows:
* 分 (bjunH, “portion”, 去聲／去声 (qùshēng, “departing tone”), 全濁聲母／全浊声母 (quánzhuó shēngmǔ, “voiced obstruent onset”)) > Vietnamese phận, Mandarin 分 (fèn), Cantonese 分 (fan6)
* 分 (pjun, “to divide”, 平聲／平声 (píngshēng, “level tone”), 清聲母／清声母 (qīng shēngmǔ, “voiceless obstruent onset”)) > Vietnamese phân, Mandarin 分 (fēn), Cantonese 分 (fan1)
The huyền tone suggests an unattested Middle Chinese reading:
* 分 (*bjun, “portion”, level tone, voiced obstruent onset) > Vietnamese phần
Alternatively, the huyền tone suggests non-Classical Chinese origin. Compare hè and hạ, mùi and vị, vì and vị.
Doublet of phân and phận. Cognate with Mandarin 分 (fèn) and Cantonese 分 (fan6). See also phần tử and phân tử, and Phần Lan.

vi-etym-sino

một phần tư

năm mươi phần trăm

(arithmetic) used in fractions, between the numerator and the denominator; per; -th


թող

head

թող • (tʻoġ)

hy-particle

թող • (tʻoġ)

թող ուտի


けれども

Originally a compound of けれ (kere, not found in isolation; meaning roughly “be that as it may”) + ども (domo, conjunctive particle introducing a contrary condition).
Etymology details
* The former kere part has multiple possible derivations:
*# The 已然形 (izenkei, “realis form”) suffix for classical -ku adjectives (modern -i adjectives)
*# The 已然形 (izenkei, “realis form”) suffix for classical negative supposition auxiliary verb まじ (maji)
*# The 已然形 (izenkei, “realis form”) of classical past recollective auxiliary verb けり (keri)
: Auxiliary verb maji conjugates almost identically to a classical -ku adjective, so 1 and 2 above can be broadly viewed together. This theory is somewhat flawed, in that the regular realis form of classical -ku adjectives would be not -kere, but rather -kare (as the fusion of adverbial ending -ku + the realis form are of classical copular or “to be” verb あり (ari), modern ある (aru)). There are historical examples of -ku + are fusing into -kere, but these appear to be restricted to early modern Japanese in the Kyoto area, while keredomo appears in the late middle Japanese period and was not restricted to Kyoto.
: The realis form of past recollective auxiliary verb keri was likewise formed by fusion, combining ki with the realis form are of existence verb あり (ari, “to be”). There are other documented examples of the diphthong ia changing into e, so the shift from ki + are to kere would not be unexpected. Some theories point towards the ki element being the past recollective auxiliary verb ki, but this had no known continuative form (for joining to following verbs). Other theories suggest that this was the continuative stem form ki of Old Japanese verb 来 (ku, “to come”), which would fit grammatically, with the compound presumably meaning “having come to be, having come into being”. Compare English be that as it may.
* The latter domo part was itself originally a compound of ど (do, conjunctive particle introducing a contrary condition) + も (mo, “even, also”, particle). The do conjunctive particle grammatically requires that the preceding conjugation be in the realis form, and this is indeed the form used for the preceding kere portion of keredomo.

compound

疲れていたけれども、相手をしてやった。

Tsukarete ita keredomo, aite o shite yatta.

彼女は一風変わっているけど綺麗だ。

Kanojo wa ippū kawatte iru kedo kirei da.

痛いけど気持ちいい。

デジタル大辞泉 w:ja:大辞泉#電子版

(formal) Used to introduce context or provide additional information before introducing a new topic.


وا

وَا أَسَفَاهُ!

وَا حُزْنَاهُ عَلَيْكَ يَا أَبَتَاهُ!

وَا فَرْحَتَاهُ!

وَا حَرَّ قَلْبَاهُ!

Al-Mutanabbi
وَا حَرَّ قَلْبَاهُ مِن مَنْ قَلْبُهُ شَبِمُ / وَمَنْ بِجِسْمِي وَحَالِي عِنْدَهُ سَقَمُ
wā ḥarra qalbāhu min man qalbuhu šabimu / waman bijismī waḥālī ʕindahu saqamu

Alas for a heart feverish on account of one whose heart is cold, and with whom there is a sickness in my body and estate.

(usually with following noun ending in āhu or ā) oh, woe


bilo

Reci kad i kamo da dođem i doći ću - bilo kad, bilo gdje!

Tell me when and where to come and I will - wherever, whenever!

Bilo danas, bilo sutra, u bilo koje doba dana.

Tomorrow or today, no matter the time of day.

Bilo sutra sunčano ili kišno, moramo počistiti vrt.

No matter if tomorrow is sunny or rainy, we have to clean up the garden.

Ići ćemo, bilo da ti se to sviđa ili ne!

We are going, whether you like it or not!

generalization particle used before another word to express indifference in regard to choice or to form a disjunctive adverbial; ever, any, whether, no matter (lit. be it this or that)


jednako

Polish: jednako

⇒ Polish: jednak

Inherited from Proto-Slavic *edьnako. By surface analysis, jednaki + -o. First attested in the end of the 14th century.

etydate

W tø dobø Saul pofacyl osczep, abi gy vderzil. A vrozumyaw Ionata, isze gednako vmiszlyl gego ocyecz (qoud definitum esset a parte suo), abi zabyl Dauida

1930 [c. 1455], “I Reg”, in Ludwik Bernacki, editor, Biblia królowej Zofii (Biblia szaroszpatacka), section 33,20:


צו

From Old High German zuo, from Proto-Germanic *tō.


lepiej

Lepiej się już zbieraj, bo spóźnisz się na pociąg.

You'd better get going or you'll miss your train.

Już lepiej się pouczmy do tej klasówki, bo znowu oblejemy.

We'd better study for this test or we'll fail again.

had better, better (should; ought to; need to; must)


chắc

Nó tưởng nó ngon lắm chắc?

Tưởng có tiền thì muốn làm gì thì làm chắc?

They think they can get away with anything just because they have money?

(colloquial) Marks a rhetorical question, often with an indignant tone


sắp

head

立, 𫁞, 㕸, 拉, 𢯛

vi-particle

立, 𫁞, 㕸, 拉, 𢯛

From Proto-Mon-Khmer *srap (“ready, prepared”); compare Pacoh tiráp, Khmer ស្រាប់ (srap) and Koho prap. Doublet of rắp.


cơ

Không chịu đâu ! Mẹ phải đi cùng cơ !

(literally, “I'm not OK with that! Mom must go with us, and that's the only way I'll accept!”)

(chiefly Northern Vietnam, colloquial, childish) it must be this way, not any other; my way or no way


wnt

From the terminative of wnn (“to exist”).

serves as a complementizer to convert a verbal or nonverbal sentence with realis mood into a subordinated noun clause; that


wnt

Alternative form of wnnt (“truly, indeed”)


chưng

In pre-modern writing of a more colloquial nature and original works, chưng was used as a preposition to indicate place and time. However, this particle/preposition was also a literary device widely used in translation of Chinese texts, as a "stand-in" of sort for the Chinese markers 之 (zhī) and 夫 (fú). See Washizawa (2017) for more information.

Assist at the libations in [our] capital

The Classic of Poetry, c. 11ᵗʰ – 7ᵗʰ centuries BCE, translated based on James Legge's version

祼將于京

祼将于京

淬𲆾助祭烝几𢄂茹周

late 18th - early 19th century CE, Thi kinh đại toàn tiết yếu diễn nghĩa (詩經大全節要演義 "Explaining the Meanings of the Essentials in the Classic of Poetry"), volume IV, page 2b:

Assist at the sacrificial libations in the Zhou capital

late 17th - early 18th c. CE, Thiên Nam Ngữ Lục Ngoại Kỷ (天南語錄外紀 "Peripheral Records in the Language of the Southern Sky"), 63b
碎俸蔑𠇮落典蒸低
Tôi bỗng một mình lạc đến chưng đây.
I suddenly became lost, alone, and ended up at this place.

古珠法雲佛本行語錄 Cổ Châu Pháp Vân phật bổn hạnh ngữ lục ("Record of what has been said about the origin and deeds of the Cloud Dharma Buddha at Cổ Châu"), Vietnamese translation possibly by Viên Thái 圓態, 1752 version, 4b
𡛔庄固重麻䐗實時磊意蒸埃
Gái chẳng có chồng mà chửa, thực thời lỗi ấy chưng ai?
An unwed girl getting pregnant; verily, because of whose fault?


đồ

Đồ chó má!

Đồ vũ phu!

Đồ độc ác!

Đồ ngu!

(derogatory) A contemptible person. Used with nouns or adjectives to form insults.


niech

Polish: niech

Silesian: niych

Clipping of niechaj. First attested in the 15th century. Compare Old Czech nechť.

Tak, yako napyszano, nyech stoy

1858 [c. 1408], Wojciech Szurkowski z Ponieca, “Wyroki sądów miejskich czyli ortyle [Urban court rulings i.e. "Ortyls"]”, in Wacław Aleksander Maciejowski, editor, Historia prawodawstw słowiańskich [History of Slavic lawmaking], volume 6, Poniec, page 145:

(hortative, attested in Greater Poland) forms third person imperative; let


niech

Inherited from Old Polish niech. By surface analysis, clipping of niechaj. Compare Czech nechť, Serbo-Croatian neka, Ukrainian неха́й (nexáj), and Upper Sorbian njech.

surf

Niech moc będzie z tobą!

Niech cię Bóg błogosławi.

forms the third person imperative in the singular and plural; let, may

Niech no pomyślę...

Niech zgadnę... ty jesteś John?

forms the first person imperative in the singular; used only with perfective verbs; let, may

expresses optative meaning; had better, may

Niech x oznacza...

(sciences) let (used to specify the meaning of a variable)


mất

head

末, 𠅍, 𡘮, 𠅎, 𠅐, 秩, 失

vi-particle

末, 𠅍, 𡘮, 𠅎, 𠅐, 秩, 失

末 (CJK)
𠅍 (CJK)
𡘮 (CJK)
𠅎 (CJK)
𠅐 (CJK)
秩 (CJK)
失 (CJK)

From Proto-Vietic *ɓǝt. Cognate with Muong Bi bất, Arem bʉt.

Bầy ong hoảng hốt nối nhau bay mất không còn một con.

1957, Đoàn Giỏi, chapter 9, in Đất rừng phương Nam, Kim Đồng:

The swarming bees in their panic all together flew away until not one was left.

used to indicate the absence of something after the action expressed in the verb

Dầm mưa miết vầy thì cảm mất.

You will end up with a cold if you keep going out in the rain unprotected like this.

Chết mất thôi.

placed after an adjective or a verb to indicate something considered unfavourable


вряд ли

head

вря́д ли • (vrjád li)

вря́д ли (canonical)
vrjád li (romanization)

Вря́д ли они́ приду́т.

I doubt it, (it is) unlikely, I'm afraid not


przecież

/ˈpʂɛ.t͡ɕɛʂ/

/ˈpʂɛ.t͡ɕɛʂ/

/ˈpr̝ɛ.t͡ɕɛʂ/

From przedsię (Middle Polish) + -ż, from Old Polish przedsie with an affrication of -dś- due to frequen use. For a similar affrication, compare raczej. First attested in 1543.

ref

Maria Renata Mayenowa, Stanisław Rospond, Witold Taszycki, Stefan Hrabec, Władysław Kuraszkiewicz (2010-2023) “przedsięż”, in Słownik Polszczyzny XVI Wieku [A Dictionary of 16th Century Polish]

— Kiedy umyjesz samochód? — Przecież już dawno to zrobiłem.

— When will you wash the car? — I already did do it a while ago.

used to introduce a new, conflicting fact, but; after all


នឹង

km-particle

នឹង • (nɨng)


नि

Emphatic interrogative particle placed at the end of the sentence.


nieco

Inherited from Proto-Slavic *něčьso. By surface analysis, nie- + co. First attested in the 15th century.

By mya chczalą trocha slvchacz, chczalbych czya nyeczo pytacz

1901 [1463-1465], Jan Rozwadowski, editor, De morte prologus [Rozmowa mistrza Polikarpa ze śmiercią], Mierzeniec, Płock, line 296:

Day nam vczucz nyeczo thwey mąky

1887 [Fifteenth century], Wacław Ubogi z Brodni, edited by Lucjan Malinowski, Modlitwy Wacława. Zabytek języka polskiego z wieku XV odkryty i skopjowany przez Aleksandra Przezdzieckiego wydał i objaśnił Lucyjan Malinowski, Krakow, Brodnia, page 64a:

A then tho vybiracz, gdy zbyerze nyeczo pyenyądzy (qui pecuniam huiusmodi colligat)..., thy tho pyenyądze ma rozdzyelaczi... myedzy braczyą

1892 [1484], Hieronim Łopaciński, editor, Reguła trzeciego zakonu św. Franciszka i drobniejsze zabytki języka polskiego z końca w. XV i początku XVI, Krakow, page 718:

A dlatego on (sc. Jesus) byl kraszy, bo byl nyeczo rumyon od sloncza (in eo sol rubedinem modicam paravit)

Middle of the 15th century, Rozmyślanie o żywocie Pana Jezusa, page 148:

(attested in Masovia, Lesser Poland, Sieradz-Łęczyca) some, a little [with genitive ‘of what’]

attested in Masovia; Lesser Poland; attested in Masovia; Lesser Poland

Nye w czem nonnihil

1874-1891 [15th century], Rozprawy i Sprawozdania z Posiedzeń Wydziału Filologicznego Akademii Umiejętności, volume XVI, page 349:


এ

Inherited from Sanskrit एष (eṣa), from a compound of Proto-Indo-European *éy + só.


কি

ki (romanization)
কি (nominative objective singular)

Inherited from Prakrit 𑀓𑀺 (ki), from Sanskrit किम् (kim).

তোমার কি কুকুর আছে?

তোমার কুকুর আছে কি?

Forms yes or no questions when placed in the second or final position of a sentence.


jednocześnie

/jɛd.nɔˈt͡ʂɛɕ.ɲɛ/

From jednoczesny + -ie. First attested in 1811.

ref

Powszechna księga ustaw cywilnych dla wszystkich krajów dziedzicznych niemieckich Monarchii Austryackiej. Cz. 2, [O prawie rzeczowem]. (in Polish), 1811, page 94

at the same time (on the other hand; also)


tabi

Dagos tabi kamo.

Ma, maduman tabi ako sa simbahan.

(formal, polite) marks respect toward the person the speaker is addressing


まま

From 儘(まま) (mama, “the same, unchanged state”, noun).

ja-r

立ったまま寝てしまう

2014, “夜明けと蛍 [Dawn and Firefly]”, n-buna [n-buna] (lyrics):

I can't find anything I want to do
so I pretend to be in a hurry with my head down

shitai koto ga mitsukerarenai kara
isoida furi utsumuku mama

したいことが見つけられないから
急いだ振り 俯くまま

(usually after the perfective form of a verb) as it is; remaining in a certain state; while still

是非一度お目にかかりたきまま、御都合の程お聞かせ願えれば幸甚に存じます。

Zehi ichido o-me ni kakaritaki mama, o-tsugō no hodo o-kikase negaereba kōjin ni zon jimasu.

If it's not too much trouble, I would be greatly honored if we could meet in person once. [Therefore,] if you could let me know your availability, it would be much appreciated.

(literary, writing, usually in a letter) Expressing the intention of explaining a reason; because


pinis

Mekim olsem pinis, orait tupela i planim taro na banana, na kumu, painap, kon, tomato, na kaukau tu.

1995, John Verhaar, Toward a reference grammar of Tok Pisin: an experiment in corpus linguistics, →ISBN, page 433:


μα

Μα το Θεό!

Μα την αλήθεια!


przynajmniej

Inherited from Old Polish przynamniej. By surface analysis, univerbation of przy + najmniej. Compare Kashubian przënômni and Slovincian przënomjé.

surf

(focus) at least (at the least; at a minimum or lower limit)

(Middle Polish) especially, particularly


imma

imma (“each other”) + ad·ciat (“they look”) → imma·aiccet (“they look at each other”) (forms of ad·cí (“to see”))

reciprocal verbal particle followed by dependent form of verb: each other


ขอรับ

th-particle

ขอรับ • (kɔ̌ɔ-ráp)

/kʰɔː˩˩˦.rap̚˦˥/

From ขอ (kɔ̌ɔ) + รับ (ráp), “may (I) serve (you)”; “at your service”.

com

ขอ (kɔ̌ɔ) + รับ (ráp)

กระผมหิวขอรับ

Particle used by male speakers at the end of sentences to make them more polite, used in both statements and questions.


เจ้าค่ะ

th-part

เจ้าค่ะ • (jâo-kâ)

/t͡ɕaw˥˩.kʰaʔ˥˩/

From เจ้าข้า (jâo-kâa, “my lord”).
Compare Lao ເຈົ້າຂະນ້ອຍ (chao khan ʼa nya)

อิฉันไม่ได้ทำเจ้าค่ะ

I did not do it, my lord (female speaker, polite)

particle used by female speakers at the end of sentences to make them more polite


เจ้าข้า

เจ้าข้า • (jâo-kâa)

/t͡ɕaw˥˩.kʰaː˥˩/

From เจ้า (jâao, “lord, you”) + ข้า (kâa, “servant, I/me”).
Compare Lao ເຈົ້າຂ້ານ້ອຍ (chao khān ʼa nya)

cog

ເຈົ້າຂ້ານ້ອຍ

อิฉันมิได้ทำเจ้าข้า


กระหม่อม

th-part

กระหม่อม • (grà-mɔ̀m)

หม่อมเจ้า หม่อมเจ้า#Thai

(royal) a particle used at the end of a sentence or phrase by a male when addressing a person holding the royal status of หม่อมเจ้า (mɔ̀m-jâao).

หม่อมเจ้า หม่อมเจ้า#Thai

(royal) an expression of affirmation or assent, used by a male when addressing a person holding the royal status of หม่อมเจ้า (mɔ̀m-jâao).


dano

Middle Irish: dana

Probably from dí- (“from”) + an- (“away”) + ṡiu (“this”).

af

used to indicate that a clause contains an inference from what goes before: then, therefore

used to indicate a parallel with what goes before: so also, so too


ցավոք

head

ցավոք • (cʻavokʻ)

hy-particle

ցավոք • (cʻavokʻ)

Learned borrowing from Old Armenian ցաւօք (cʻawōkʻ, “with pain”), the plural instrumental of ցաւ (cʻaw, “pain”).


na b'

àrd - high
na b' àirde - higher

na b' fhuaire - colder

Precedes the comparative form of an adjective or an adverb.


a bu

a bu ghlice - wisest

mòr - big
a bu mhotha - biggest

Creates the superlative when preceding the comparative form of an adjective or an adverb.


na bu

na bu ghlice - wiser

mòr - big
na bu mhotha - bigger


a b'

àrd - high
a b' àirde - highest

fuar - cold


ấy

Diachronically, this is probably a Northern Vietnamese innovation occured some time between the stages of Proto-Vietnamese and attested Northern Old Vietnamese. It is amply attested in the oldest Nôm texts (which are all in Northern Old Vietnamese or its offshoot(s)), yet has no cognate in the Muong lects, and usage of this morpheme by Central and Southern speakers clearly indicates borrowing. It also does not neatly fit into Proto-Vietnamese demonstrative paradigm with its zero-initial.
The situation can probably be hypothesized as

(chiefly Northern Vietnam) sentence-ending intensifying particle


-hw

Gothic: -𐌿𐌷 (-uh)

From Proto-Indo-European *-kʷe. Cognate with Latin -que.

Forms distributives from interrogatives.


shąʼ

Kii shąʼ?


to jest

Literally, “that is”. Compare English i.e.

(idiomatic) in other words, namely, that is to say


quippe

For quid (“what, why, well!”, interjection) + -pe, the same corroborating particle seen in nempe; see also quispiam.

suffix

(explanatory, quasi-conjunction) the reason is that (introducing the reason for a previous assertion and expecting ready agreement)

(used as a standalone answer, often followed by a sentence introduced with etenim)

(followed by quī, quae, quod with subjunctive) as is to be expected from someone who; as being

(followed by ubī̆ with indicative or subjunctive) seeing as, since, inasmuch as (specifying and qualifying a situation)

(followed by cum, quandō, quoniam, quod, quia, sī, quī (instrumental) with indicative) as is natural when, seeing as (introducing a justification, defence etc.)

Mene incepto desistere victam,
nec posse Italia Teucrorum avertere regem?

1983 translation by Robert Fitzgerald
Give up what I began? Am I defeated? Am I impotent to keep the king of Teucrians from Italy? The Fates forbid me, am I to suppose?

(explicative, often parenthetic) indeed, since, after all, why, I mean (often corresponding to a written dash in English)

for, namely (explaining the usage of a word or phrase)


ī

Gothic: 𐌴𐌹 (ei)

that, who, which; (generic relative particle)


ວ

ເອວ ເອວ#Pali

Lao script form of va, sandhi form of ເອວ (eva, “even”)


choć

Polish: choć

Silesian: choć

Clipping of chocia from frequent use. First attested in the 15th century.

Ustawiami..., ys ieslizebi... ziemianyn... smialbi moczą a gwalthem... dom cziykolwie nayachacz..., a chocz thes ieslibi rzeczy gospodarskie... pobral..., uthracza czescz

1858 [1498], Wacław Aleksander Maciejowski, editor, Historia prawodawstw słowiańskich, 2 edition, volume VI, page 272:


choć

Inherited from Old Polish choć. By surface analysis, clipping of chocia. Compare Kashubian chòc and Russian хоть (xotʹ).

Ach nieſtotys chocz mie ſtrach zyal A takem ſię barzo leknal. Nieſmiem przemowicz ny ſlowa

(Middle Polish) The meaning of this term is uncertain.


choć

Inherited from Old Polish choć. By surface analysis, clipping of chocia.


quippini

[ˈkʷɪpːɪniː]

From quid + -pe + nī, literally “why, how else then?”, an intensified version of quidnī and quippe. Compare nīmīrum.

af

(in replies, introducing a question, also in ironical agreement) how else? of course, naturally

introducing a question; parenthetical; parenthetical


нэг

From Proto-Mongolic *negen, *niken amidst other reconstructions based on different Mongolic sources. Compare Buryat нэгэн (negen), Kalmyk негн (negn).

(before a verb) denotes momentous aspect


ан

ан кай унта!


tʼáá

just, only, kind of, sort of, quite (a particularizing element, often difficult to translate; usually not translated)

béésh bee akʼeʼelchíhí tʼáá bí nitsékeesígíí


uku

e.g. tuttunuku

e.g. inuit-uku?

plural of una, a hyphenated or assimilated enclitic which denotes to be.


kwenye

Ku class inflected form of -enye: (an indefinite place) having; on


ndi

Noun class indicator for nouns (singular)


भी

Inherited from Sauraseni Prakrit 𑀯𑀺 (vi), 𑀧𑀺 (pi), 𑀅𑀯𑀺 (avi), from Sanskrit अपि (api, “close by; also”).

inh+

यह खाया भी जा सकता है!


tias

Kuv xav tias zaub mov qab zoo.

restricted post-verbal intensifier used after verbs involving speech, sound, or thought, similar to the English usage of that, though with said above restrictions


lágo

Nahółtą́ą́ʼ lágo.

with the optative mode, expresses a negative wish, desire, or command


ថីមិន

km-particle

ថីមិន • (thəy mɨn)

ថីមិនឃើញ


inaczej

Inherited from Old Polish inaczej. Compare Kashubian jinaczi.

On jest inteligentny inaczej.

(humorous) used to say that a given trait is not possessed by the given person or object; not

to put it another way
to put it another way


ការ

From Pali kāra (“doing”) or Sanskrit कार (kāra).

ការកំណត់

ការក្រ

nominalizer creating abstract nouns from verbs, also sometimes from adjectives:


jeno

Gedz, bylecz szø gedno chczalo

1415, Przecław Słota, O zachowaniu się przy stole, Łęczyca, Poznań, line 73:

Bylo przykazano v starem zakonye, yze myely to yagnya yescz..., stoyącz y dzyerzacz kye v rąkv, yakoby yedno poskoczycz

Middle of the 15th century, Rozmyślanie o żywocie Pana Jezusa, page 533:

(attested in Sieradz-Łęczyca, Greater Poland) only, merely, just

Zaprzisyøgam cyø, abi my nye mowyl, gedno czso prawdzywego gest (non loquaris..., nisi quod verum est), w gymyø bosze

1930 [c. 1455], “III Reg”, in Ludwik Bernacki, editor, Biblia królowej Zofii (Biblia szaroszpatacka), 22, 16:

Iaco *Choyensczi ne przecz [ne] sabil Waldowskego, yeno przeto, ysz mu dal brata obesicz

1902 [1404], “Wybór zapisek sądowych grodzkich i ziemskich wielkopolskich z XV wieku”, in Franciszek Piekosiński, editor, Studia, rozprawy i materiały z dziedziny historii polskiej i prawa polskiego, volume 6, Poznań, Pyzdry, Kościan, Gniezno, page 230:

Jaco ginego dnya nye dayal, ieno umowyoni

1856-1870 [1398], Antoni Zygmunt Helcel, editor, Starodawne Prawa Polskiego Pomniki, volume VIII, number 7373:

A nixecz ginsego thamo ne szøcz ony bily nalesly, gedno pełen grob manny bose

Beginning of the 15th century, Łukasz z Wielkiego Koźmina, Kazania gnieźnieńskie, Krakow, page 181b:

Jaco to swaczimi, is Micolay ginako ne røczil Czaslawoui za Staska, yedno gi pred *preczele przivescz

1959 [1397], Henryk Kowalewicz, Władysław Kuraszkiewicz, editors, Wielkopolskie roty sądowe XIV-XV wieku, Roty poznańskie, volume I, number 358, Poznań:

(attested in Greater Poland, Lesser Poland) as soon as, unless only

attested in Greater Poland; Lesser Poland; attested in Greater Poland; Lesser Poland


tymczasem

Inherited from Old Polish temczasem. By surface analysis, univerbation of tym + czasem. Compare Kashubian timczasã.


lwi

Used at the end of a sentence to form a yes-no question about a state, a habitual activity, or an activity in the future.


τοι

A variant form of σοι (soi, “to you”), dative of σύ (sú, “thou”).

(discourse particle, assuring the listener that what the speaker says is true, or implying the listener knows it is true) let me tell you, you see, certainly

assuring the listener that what the speaker says is true; or implying the listener knows it is true; assuring the listener that what the speaker says is true; or implying the listener knows it is true


ως

Σας μιλώ ως επιστήμονας.

Αντιμετωπίστε καθετί νέο ως πρόκληση!


είθε

head

είθε • (eíthe)

el-particle

είθε • (eíthe)


μακάρι

head

μακάρι • (makári)

el-particle

μακάρι • (makári)

→ Asturian: magar

→ Italian: magari

→ Sicilian: macari

→ Old Galician-Portuguese: macar

→ Romanian: măcar

→ Serbo-Croatian: makar

→ Spanish: maguer

From Byzantine Greek μακάριν, μακάρι (makárin, makári), from Koine Greek μακάριον (makárion), from Ancient Greek μακάριος (makários).

inh

μακάριν, μακάρι

Μακάρι να ξεχαστούμε όλοι.


နေ

From Proto-Sino-Tibetan *g-na-s (“to stay, to live, to dwell, to be”).

ဘာ လုပ်နေသလဲ။
bha lupnesa.lai:||
What are you doing?

suffixed to a verb to denote a continuing process (progressive aspect)


naj

From the shorter form of the imperative of nehati.

Vre tičeki spiju
A šume mučiju,
Naj moja popevka zvoni
Po dolu i gaju,
Po dragomu kraju,
Od kojeg mi lepšega ni.

1927, Dragutin Domjanić, V suncu i senci:


кой

кой-зярдо, кой-косо


jedynie

From jedyny + -ie. The form with the hard -d- was originally a dialectal result of depalatalization that occurred in Lesser Poland, but ultimately displaced the form with -dz-. First attested in 1522. Compare Kashubian jedinie／jedënie and Silesian jedzinie／jedynie for the hard/soft variation.

ref

Maria Renata Mayenowa, Stanisław Rospond, Witold Taszycki, Stefan Hrabec, Władysław Kuraszkiewicz (2010-2023) “jedynie”, in Słownik Polszczyzny XVI Wieku [A Dictionary of 16th Century Polish]

only, merely (without others or anything further; exclusively)

emphasizing something that is just or necessary; only, merely


mowa

(colloquial) word! (truth, indeed, that is the truth!)


uostalom

uòstālom (canonical)
уо̀ста̄лом (Cyrillic)

Uostalom, meni je svejedno.


уосталом

уо̀ста̄лом (canonical)
uòstālom (romanization)

Уосталом, мени је свеједно.

Besides, it's all the same to me. (=I don't care.)


-uh

Variant form of *-hw, used with words ending in obstruents (and possibly other consonants).


вроде

head

вро́де • (vróde)

Вро́де всё рабо́тает!


мол

Он мне говори́т, мол, дава́й де́ньги!

He says to me, he says, "give me the money!"

(colloquial) (s)he says, they say (used informally to mark reported speech)


ровно

ро́вно • (róvno)

(colloquial) absolutely, at all, completely, quite


しも

shi mo (romanization)
simo (romanization)
しも (hiragana historical)


diya

zùlúm-tò-dìyà

her anus, which is visible to both of us

ʔàa-kè-díɓɓò zùlúm-tò-dìyà tà-kwáadà-ntí-mìnê gè-ʔámmàà

The Grammar of Knowledge: A Cross-Linguistic Typology (2014)

If you crush her anus [that we can both see] she will definitely throw us into the water.

COND-2sg:MASC-crush:PERV anus-POSS:3sg:FEM-JOINT:VIS 3sg:FEM-throw:TR-ASSERT-OBJ:1pl LOC-water-DEF

indicates that something is visible to both the speaker and the hearer


ស្ដេច

km-particle

ស្ដេច • (sdac)

From Old Khmer stec, stac, stāc (“to be supreme in status and power”). Compare Thai เสด็จ (sà-dèt).

honorific particle used before a verb of motion if the king is the subject


ရုံ

only (particle suffixed to a verb to convey the sense of being limited in degree or extent)


すら

c. 91 BCE, Sima Qian, “廉頗藺相如列傳”, in Shiji, volume 81:

且つ庸人すら尚ほ之を羞づ。

Besides, even ordinary people would still be ashamed of it.


نوچ

head

نوچ • (nowč)


хули

ху́ли • (xúli)

Contraction of хуй (xuj, “penis”) + ли (li, “whether”)

Ху́ли ты пришёл?

A ху́ли он говори́л, что лю́бит пи́во!

(vulgar, taboo slang) (emphatic interrogative particle) why the fuck

Ху́ли ты тут де́лаешь?

(vulgar, taboo slang) (emphatic interrogative particle) what the fuck

(vulgar, taboo slang) so fucking what, of fucking course! (in reply to a stupid question)


pra

Clipping of prŏwda, from Proto-Slavic *pravьda.

Takech słyszoł – ôdpedzioł drugi . – Zima dzisiej, pra?

2017, Charles Dickens, translated by Grzegorz Kulik, Godniŏ pieśń [A Christmas Carol], 1 edition, Opole: Silesia Progress, →ISBN, page 94:

"That's what I heard", said the other, "Winter is today, right?"

introduces a tag question; right? isn't it?


よし

Combination of よ (yo, phrase-ending interjectory particle marking emphasis) + し (shi, phrase-ending interjectory particle marking admiration or exclamation).

compound

青丹余之 奈良能美夜古波 布里奴礼登 毛等保登等藝須 不鳴安良奈久尓

毛等保登等藝須 もとほととぎす

青(あを)丹(に)よし　奈良(なら)の都(みやこ)は　古(ふ)りぬれど　本(もと)杜鵑(ほととぎす)　鳴(な)かず有(あ)らなくに
awoni yosi // nara no miyako pa // purinuredo // moto pototogisu // nakazu aranaku ni

Ah, the green-black earth // the capital of Nara // though it may be old // lo, the cuckoo birds of old // simply would not fail to sing


mı

miyim (present singular)
misin (present singular)
mi (present singular)
miyiz (plural present)
misiniz (plural present)
mi (plural present)
mıyım (present singular)
mısın (present singular)
mı (present singular)
mıyız (plural present)
mısınız (plural present)
mı (plural present)
müyüm (present singular)
müsün (present singular)
mü (present singular)
müyüz (plural present)
müsünüz (plural present)
mü (plural present)
muyum (present singular)
musun (present singular)
mu (present singular)
muyuz (plural present)
musunuz (plural present)
mu (plural present)
miydim (past singular)
miydin (past singular)
miydi (past singular)
miydik (past plural)
miydiniz (past plural)
miydi (past plural)
mıydım (past singular)
mıydın (past singular)
mıydı (past singular)
mıydık (past plural)
mıydınız (past plural)
mıydı (past plural)
müydüm (past singular)
müydün (past singular)
müydü (past singular)
müydüz (past plural)
müydünüz (past plural)
müydü (past plural)
muydum (past singular)
muydun (past singular)
muydu (past singular)
muyduk (past plural)
muydunuz (past plural)
muydu (past plural)
miymişim (inferential singular)
miymişsin (inferential singular)
miymiş (inferential singular)
miymişiz (inferential plural)
miymişsiniz (inferential plural)
miymiş (inferential plural)
mıymışım (inferential singular)
mıymışsın (inferential singular)
mıymış (inferential singular)
mıymışız (inferential plural)
mıymışsınız (inferential plural)
mıymış (inferential plural)
müymüşüm (inferential singular)
müymüşsün (inferential singular)
müymüş (inferential singular)
müymüşüz (inferential plural)
müymüşsünüz (inferential plural)
müymüş (inferential plural)
muymuşum (inferential singular)
muymuşsun (inferential singular)
muymuş (inferential singular)
muymuşuz (inferential plural)
muymuşsunuz (inferential plural)
muymuş (inferential plural)
miysem (conditional singular)
miysen (conditional singular)
miyse (conditional singular)
miysek (conditional plural)
miyseniz (conditional plural)
miyse (conditional plural)
mıysam (conditional singular)
mıysan (conditional singular)
mıysa (conditional singular)
mıysak (conditional plural)
mıysanız (conditional plural)
mıysa (conditional plural)
müysem (conditional singular)
müysen (conditional singular)
müyse (conditional singular)
müysek (conditional plural)
müyseniz (conditional plural)
müyse (conditional plural)
muysam (conditional singular)
muysan (conditional singular)
muysa (conditional singular)
muysak (conditional plural)
muysanız (conditional plural)
muysa (conditional plural)

Arabanı sattın mı?

Aptal mısın?

Dondurma alacak mıyız?

Güven kağıt gibidir; bir kere buruştu mu, hırpalandı mı bir daha eskisi gibi olmayacaktır.

Trust is like paper; once it's wrinkled, once it's battered it'll never be like it once was.


-ც

მეც ვიყავი იქ.

წიგნი, რომელიც წავიკითხე, ძალიან საინტერესო იყო.

The book, which I read, was very interesting.

c̣igni, romelic c̣aviḳitxe, ʒalian sainṭereso iq̇o.

Particle that emphasizes a pronoun it's added to and can make it a conjunction.


w ogóle

A tak w ogóle, to mam na imię Kamila.

(idiomatic) by the way (incidentally; used in referencing a parenthetical statement not timely, central, or crucial to the topic at hand; foregone, passed by, something that has already happened)

W ogóle nie wiem, o czym mówisz.

I don't know at all what you are talking about.

Czy on to w ogóle zrobił?

(idiomatic, chiefly in the negative) at all, even (to the slightest degree, in any way, at any time or in any circumstance)


toć

Inherited from Old Polish toć. By surface analysis, to + -ć.


kiểu

Kiểu ý nói là...

(colloquial) like; as though; as if; that is to say


pewnie

Inherited from Old Polish pewnie. By surface analysis, pewny + -ie.

absolutely, certainly, definitely, for sure, sure


-ś

Inherited from Old Polish -ś, from Proto-Slavic *si. Cognate with Kashubian -s, Slovincian -sz.

interrogative pronoun
interrogative pronoun#English

indefinite pronoun
indefinite pronoun#English

appended to relative/interrogative pronouns to form indefinite pronouns; some-


loh

Gua nggak mau loh.

Suaminya insinyur di perusahaan Jepang loh.

Her husband works as an engineer in a Japanese firm! (in this sentence, adding lho suggests that he is no ordinary man)

Jam dua loh.

(colloquial) Adds emphasis at the end of a sentence or clause.


нь

From Middle Mongol ᠢᠨᠤ (inu, 3sg-poss) and ᠠᠨᠤ (anu, 3pl-poss).
-н (-n) was an oblique suffix originally after a personal pronoun’s stem, while -ь (-ʹ) is the unique suffix for possessive particles. Original determiners were merged into a single particle, so morphemes i and a which denote grammatical numbers, were omitted.
Compare also Buryat -нь (-nʹ), -ынь (-ynʹ), -иинь (-iinʹ) and Kalmyk -нь (-nʹ).

Нохой нь маш номхон байна.

one (a particular thing or person, qualified with an adjective)

(after participles)what (marking a subject clause)


właściwie

From właściwy + -ie. First attested in the 16th century.

ref

Maria Renata Mayenowa, Stanisław Rospond, Witold Taszycki, Stefan Hrabec, Władysław Kuraszkiewicz (2010-2023) “właściwie”, in Słownik Polszczyzny XVI Wieku [A Dictionary of 16th Century Polish]

emphasize particle; actually; in fact, well; really

clarifying particle; actually; in fact, in truth

particle that conveys a lack of understanding, remembering, etc.; exactly


dopiero

Ona dopiero wróciła do domu kiedy kolejna katastrofa się wydarzyła.

She had scarcely returned home when the next catastrophe occurred.

To dopiero był mecz!

To się dopiero wydarzy.

Będziemy tam dopiero za dwa miesiące.

We will only be there in two months, it will be two months before we are there.

of something that hasn’t started yet and is yet to happen; yet, only

Dopiero Marie Curie odkryła polon i rad.

Marie Curie was the first to discover polonium and radium.

used to mark someone as being the first to do something

(Middle Polish) now (at the current moment)

Iam adverbium temporis, Teraz/ dopiero/ też wnet álbo hnet/ też yuż.

Tum magis, id dicas, Ty byś więcey dopiero rzekł.

Ietzund. Teraz. Dopirzo. Iam.

1579, A. Calagius, Synonyma Latina, page 302b:

Modo – Teraz, dopiero.

1588, A. Calepinus, Dictionarium decem linguarum, page 667b:

(Middle Polish) now; already; Further details are uncertain.


raczej

Inherited from Old Polish radszej (comparative degree of rado (“willingly”)) with an affrication of -dsz- due to frequent use. For a similar affrication, compare przecież.

Było raczej gorąco.

denotes hesitation but a preference towards something; rather; fairly, kind of

Nie byłem głodny, raczej spragniony.

used to state that a given trait is more apt to describe something as opposed to another; rather; not

On był głodny, spragiony raczej.

used to replace a previously used word; no wait; actually


po prostu

Literally, “just like [that]”. First attested in 1681. Compare Russian по́просту (póprostu).

Paweł Kupiszewski (18.12.2020) “PO%20PROSTU”, in Elektroniczny Słownik Języka Polskiego XVII i XVIII Wieku [Electronic Dictionary of the Polish Language of the XVII and XVIII Century]

Bańkowski, Andrzej (2000) “po prostu”, in Etymologiczny słownik języka polskiego [Etymological Dictionary of the Polish Language] (in Polish)

Nie trzeba wielkich słów, po prostu ze mną bądź

2019, Poparzeni Kawą Trzy, Po prostu ze mną bądź:


अङ्ग

head

अङ्ग • (aṅga)

Of unclear origin. The traditional derivation from अङ्ग् (aṅg, “to go”) is semantically unappealing. Others connect the word to Old Prussian anga (“whether”).

a particle implying attention, assent or desire, and sometimes impatience; it may be rendered by well


ponad

Univerbation of po + nad. Compare Kashubian pònad and Ukrainian по́над (pónad). First attested in 1749.

ref

Paweł Kupiszewski (16.05.2019) “PONAD”, in Elektroniczny Słownik Języka Polskiego XVII i XVIII Wieku [Electronic Dictionary of the Polish Language of the XVII and XVIII Century]

Pracuję tu ponad dwie dekady.

I have worked here for over two decades.


cokolwiek

Inherited from Old Polish cokolwiek, from Proto-Slavic *čьsokolivěkъ. Compare Slovak čokoľvek, Czech cokolivěk.


ܒ-

ܒܸ- (canonical)
ܒܹ- (canonical)
ܒܝܼ (canonical)
bi- (romanization)
bē- (romanization)
bī (romanization)

From Aramaic בְּ־ (bə-), ultimately Proto-Semitic *bV- (“with, in, at, among”) with likely interrelation with Proto-Semitic *bayt- (“site, location; nest, house”); compare Arabic بِ- (bi-) and Hebrew בְּ־ (bə-).

der

ܝܼܠܹܗ ܒܸܩܪܵܝܵܐ

ܝܼܗ݇ܘܵܐ ܒܸܩܪܵܝܵܐ

ܒܸܕ ܗܵܘܹܐ ܒܸܩܪܵܝܵܐ

He will be reading; He is probably reading.

attached to the gerund to form the present participle and progressive verbs


widać

Inherited from Old Polish widać. By surface analysis, widzieć + -ać.


mba

dá mba chapall mé


ponadto

Univerbation of ponad + to. Calque of German überdies. First attested in 1831.

ref

Gazeta Wielkiego Xięstwa Poznańskiego (in Polish), number 215, 1831 September 16, page 1141


نہیں

Inherited from Sanskrit नहि (nahí, “surely not”), from Proto-Indo-Iranian *naǰʰí, from earlier *ná gʲʰí, from Proto-Indo-European *né + *gʰí. Cognate with Bengali নাই (nai)/নেই (nei), Early Assamese নাহি (nahi), Assamese নাই (nai), Braj नहीं (nahī̃).

inh+

تم نہیں جاؤ۔


𐌴𐌹

From Proto-Germanic *ī, from earlier *h₁ey or *iH.

(relative) that, who, which; generic relative particle


ще

Ще му кажа.

Като се прибереш, ще съм почистил къщата.

By the time you get home, I will have cleaned the house.

Kato se pribereš, šte sǎm počistil kǎštata.

used to form the future and the future perfect tense, will, shall, going to


-là

cet homme-là

ces choses-là

Je préfère ce gâteau-là à celui-ci.


𐌽𐌹

From Proto-Germanic *ne, from Proto-Indo-European *ne (“not”).

𐌾𐌰𐌷 𐌾𐌰𐌱𐌰𐌹 𐌷𐌰𐌱𐌰𐌿 𐍀𐍂𐌰𐌿𐍆𐌴𐍄𐌾𐌰𐌽𐍃 𐌾𐌰𐌷 𐍅𐌹𐍄𐌾𐌰𐌿 𐌰𐌻𐌻𐌰𐌹𐌶𐌴 𐍂𐌿𐌽𐍉𐍃 𐌾𐌰𐌷 𐌰𐌻𐌻 𐌺𐌿𐌽𐌸𐌹 𐌾𐌰𐌷 𐌷𐌰𐌱𐌰𐌿 𐌰𐌻𐌻𐌰 𐌲𐌰𐌻𐌰𐌿𐌱𐌴𐌹𐌽, 𐍃𐍅𐌰𐍃𐍅𐌴 𐍆𐌰𐌹𐍂𐌲𐌿𐌽𐌾𐌰 𐌼𐌹𐌸𐍃𐌰𐍄𐌾𐌰𐌿, 𐌹𐌸 𐍆𐍂𐌹𐌰𐌸𐍅𐌰 𐌽𐌹 𐌷𐌰𐌱𐌰𐌿, 𐌽𐌹 𐍅𐌰𐌹𐌷𐍄𐍃 𐌹𐌼.

And though I have the gift of prophecy, and understand all mysteries, and all knowledge; and though I have all faith, so that I could remove mountains, and have not charity, I am nothing. (KJV)

jah jabai habau praufētjans jah witjau allaizē runōs jah all kunþi jah habau alla galaubein, swaswē fairgunja miþsatjau, iþ friaþwa ni habau, ni waihts im.


კი

მე-კი ვიმეცადინებ მარა გამოცდის ჩამბარებელი მაინც არ ვარ

I will study, but I'm not gonna pass my exams

me-ḳi vimecadineb mara gamocdis čambarebeli mainc ar var

Affirmative particle. Used to affirm following sentence, and may also suggest something that might not have been given enough attention

ეს რა არის? ამას მეც-კი გავაკეთებ. ლუდი დამიჭირე

What is that? Even I can do this shit! Just hold my beer

es ra aris? amas mec-ḳi gavaḳeteb. ludi damič̣ire

Affirmative particle. Together with -ც it is used to intensify

შენ ჯერ ნორჩი ხარ, მე-კი მოხუცი


-gin

Old English: -ġen (hwerġen, hwærn)

Old Saxon: -gin (hwargin, hwergin)

Middle Low German: -gen (irgen, jergen, jerne)

Old Dutch: -gin (iowergin, niergen)

Middle Dutch: -gen (ergen, nergen)

Dutch: -gens (ergens, nergens)

Old High German: -gin (wergin)

Middle High German: -gen (irgen)

(German: irgend)

Old Norse: -gi

(Icelandic: hvergi, manngi, hvorki, hvorugur, einungis, enginn, vettugi, öldungis)

(Danish: hverken, ingen, ikke, aldrig, ej)

From a variant or development of the root found in Proto-Indo-European *kʷos + particle *ne.

Attaches to indefinite pronouns, with the suffixed word often being preceded by the particle *ne or *ni.

Attaches to indefinite adverbs, with the suffixed word often being preceded by the particle *ne or *ni.


สัน

undefined, found in a number of compounds.


ra'a

particle encoding temporal remoteness, specifically in relation to an event the speaker knows to have occurred earlier on the day of utterance


מודה

מודה זײַן
מודה זײַן#Yiddish


さえ

sae (romanization)
さへ (hiragana historical)

From 添(そ)へ (sohe), 連用形(れんようけい) (ren'yōkei, “stem or continuative form”) of classical verb 添(そ)ふ (sofu)(modern equivalent: 添(そ)える (soeru)).

ja-r

犬さえ食わない

○○さえいればなんでもできる。


awo

Middle Polish: awo

Univerbation of a + wo. First attested in the 15th century.

On otpowyedzal: awo gesm (adsum)

1930 [c. 1455], “Gen”, in Ludwik Bernacki, editor, Biblia królowej Zofii (Biblia szaroszpatacka), 22, 11:


awo

Inherited from Old Polish awo. By surface analysis, univerbation of a + wo.

surf

(Middle Polish) expresses uncertainty; maybe, perhaps


くない

Derived as a repurposing of the negative ending -ku nai of regular -i adjectives. Appears as slang in informal usage where standard Japanese would use じゃない (ja nai) instead.

あるくない？

2019 August 21, QuizKnock [QuizKnock], 5m30s from the start, in 【判じ絵】江戸時代のなぞなぞに東大生が挑戦！, via YouTube:

江戸時代になると濁点あるくない？

We have the voicing mark once we get to the Edo period, don't we?

2020 October 28, QuizKnock [QuizKnock], 3m02s from the start, in ｢ですが｣が全部｢か〜ら〜の〜？｣になるクイズしてみたYO⤴【パリピ】, via YouTube:

Tsuka yabakune kore? Hikaru kune? Hikaru kune?

つかやばくねコレ？光るくね？光るくね？

Dude, but look at this though; it's blinking. Isn't that whack?

(informal, slang) isn't it, aren't you (said when seeking confirmation from the listener)


-𐌿

Possibly from Proto-Germanic *-u, from Proto-Indo-European *-wē~*-we (“or”).

[…] 𐌿𐌶𐌿 𐍅𐌰𐌿𐍂𐍃𐍄𐍅𐌰𐌼 𐍅𐌹𐍄𐍉𐌳𐌹𐍃 𐌰𐌷𐌼𐌰𐌽 𐌽𐌴𐌼𐌿𐌸 𐌸𐌰𐌿 𐌿𐌶𐌿 𐌲𐌰𐌷𐌰𐌿𐍃𐌴𐌹𐌽𐌰𐌹 𐌲𐌰𐌻𐌰𐌿𐌱𐌴𐌹𐌽𐌰𐌹𐍃?
[…] uzu waurstwam witōdis ahman nēmuþ þau uzu gahauseinai galaubeinais?

[was it] from [the] works of [the] law [you] took [the] spirit or from [the] hearing of [the] faith?

Added to the end of a word in a phrase (usually the first word) to make it a question.


შეიძლება

head

შეიძლება • (šeiʒleba)


בי

(archaic or obsolete) please: used to make a polite request


yaʼ

Atiingóó hashtłʼish yaʼ?

is that okay with you?; are you fine with that?; is that all right?


nup

I've suggested many jobs she could do but nup no way. She just was happy getting her freeloading money. I realised what a freeloader she really was when she started ranting about losing money when she got married to a guy with a job.

2013 December 4, u/singloud, “Did anyone else have chronically unemployed parents or even parents who were just always at home?”, in Reddit, r/raisedbynarcissists, archived from the original on 2023-09-28:

(colloquial, originally US, now chiefly Australia, New Zealand) No, nope.


ńtʼę́ʼę́ę

ńtʼééʼ (“it was”) + yę́ę (“aforementioned, the late”)


ទី

From Chinese 第 (dì, ordinal number marker). Compare Thai ที่ (tîi).

ទី១

ទី២


ទី

From Chinese 的 (dì, “nominalizing particle”). Compare Thai ที่ (tîi).

ទីពឹង

someone or something upon which one can depend

ទីសំអប់

nominalizer for forming compound nouns with the general meaning of "that which is worthy of" the sense of the verb; or "that which is the object of" the sense of the verb.


nítʼę́ʼę́ę

ńtʼę́ʼę́ę ńtʼę́ʼę́ę#Navajo


يا

→ Armenian: յա (ya)

→ Hebrew: יא (ya)

→ Hindi: या (yā)

→ Ottoman Turkish: یا (ya)

Turkish: ya

→ Persian: یا (yâ)

يَا كَرِيمُ...

يَا حِمارُ!

يَا قُدْسُ يَا قُدْسُ يَا قُدْسُ يَا مَدِينَةَ الصَّلَاة أُصَلِّي

1971, “زَهْرَةُ المَدَائِن (zahratu l-madāʔin) [The Flower of [All] Cities]”, in Said Akl (lyrics), The Rahbani Brothers (music), القُدْسْ فِي البَال (al-quds fī l-bāl) [Jerusalem in My Heart], performed by Fairuz:

O Jerusalem, O Jerusalem, O Jerusalem, O city of prayer... I pray

yā qudsu yā qudsu yā qudsu yā madīnata ṣ-ṣalāh ʾuṣallī

O; hey; you; vocative particle preceding a noun used in direct address, only rarely omitted in such contexts


يا

طمني يا دكتور، ايه حالة ابننا دلوقت؟

Assure me O doctor, what's the health status of our son now?

ṭamminni ya doktor, ē ḥālet ibnena dilwaʾt?


يا

يا غريب كون اديب

yā ḡərīb kūn ədīb


يا

يا داك لولد، أش كاتدير؟


يا

يا غاتعطيني شنو بغيت، يا غانمشي فحالي

Either you give me what I want, or I will leave.


يا

شو بدك ياني قول؟

رح فرجيك ياهن.

ما فيني اشرحلك ياه.

accusative particle, used with pronominal suffixes to express English object pronouns, like me, him, etc.


يا

ajp-particle

يّا • (yyā-)

Alternative spelling of ايا (iyya-), especially after a vowel


laanaa

Nahółtą́ą́ʼ laanaa.

Bibéesooígíí shííʼ laanaa.

(with optative mode) wishing that it would; wish that it would; wishing for


ნუ

გთხოვთ, ნუ მიეყრდნობით კარებს.

Expresses negation combined with prohibition; corresponds to the English ‘do not’.


ʻiaha

marks the negative imperative when inserted before the verb


ʻahani

if; marks a hypothetical when inserted before the verb


ʻua

indicates the perfective aspect; shows that the verb following it happened in the past


とか

Case-marking particle と (to) plus adverbial particle か (ka)

something like, some kind of; where the situation is unclear


とか

Parallel marking particle と (to) (used to join two words together in the same way as や (ya)) plus adverbial particle か (ka)

such as, and so on; used when listing something part of a larger group of similar things

or something, used to avoid stating something clearly and add vagueness


ма

Ма, то наистина било хубаво!

Ма, какво му мислите толкова? ― Ma, kakvo mu mislite tolkova? ― Jeez, what are you analysing so much!

expresses irritation, objection, impatiance


ма

толат ма?


ма

Inherited from Proto-Indo-European *meh₁.

ма тӕрс


ńtʼę́ę́ʼ

ńtʼééʼ ńtʼééʼ#Navajo


ليت

ar-particle

لَيْتَ • (layta)

لَيْتَ (canonical)
layta (romanization)
لَيْتَ (stem)
لَيْتَنِي (feminine first-person masculine singular)
لَيْتَنَا (common-gender dual feminine first-person masculine plural)
لَيْتَكَ (masculine second-person singular)
لَيْتَكِ (feminine second-person singular)
لَيْتَكُمَا (common-gender dual second-person)
لَيْتَكُمْ (masculine plural second-person)
لَيْتَكُنَّ (feminine plural second-person)
لَيْتَهُ (masculine singular third-person)
لَيْتَهَا (feminine singular third-person)
لَيْتَهُمَا (common-gender dual third-person)
لَيْتَهُمْ (masculine plural third-person)
لَيْتَهُنَّ (feminine plural third-person)

لَيْتَكَ كُنْتَ مَعِي أَمْس!

وَيَوْمَ يَعَضُّ ٱلظَّالِمُ عَلَىٰ يَدَيْهِ يَقُولُ يَـٰلَيْتَنِى ٱتَّخَذْتُ مَعَ ٱلرَّسُولِ سَبِيلًا ۝ يَـٰوَيْلَتَىٰ لَيْتَنِى لَمْ أَتَّخِذْ فُلَانًا خَلِيلًا ۝

And (beware of) the Day the wrongdoer will bite his nails (in regret) and say, “Oh! I wish I had followed the way along with the Messenger! Woe to me! I wish I had never taken that one as a friend.

wayawma yaʕaḍḍu l-ẓālimu ʕalā yadayhi yaqūlu yālaytanī ittaḵaḏtu maʕa l-rasūli sabīlan. yāwaylatā laytanī lam attaḵiḏ fulānan ḵalīlan.

وَأَمَّا مَنْ أُوتِىَ كِتَـٰبَهُ بِشِمَالِهِ فَيَقُولُ يَـٰلَيْتَنِى لَمْ أُوتَ كِتَـٰبِيَهْ ۝ وَلَمْ أَدْرِ مَا حِسَابِيَهْ ۝ يَـٰلَيْتَهَا كَانَتِ ٱلْقَاضِيَةَ ۝

And as for those given their record in their left hand, they will cry (bitterly), “Oh! I wish I had not been given my record, nor known anything of my reckoning! Oh! I wish it (death) was the end!

waʔammā man ʔūtiya kitābahu bišimālihi fayaqūlu yālaytanī lam ʔūta kitābiyah. ʔadri mā ḥisābiyah. yālaytahā kānati l-qāḍiya.

إِنَّا أَنْذَرْنَٰكُمْ عَذَابًا قَرِيبًا يَوْمَ يَنْظُرُ ٱلْمَرْءُ مَا قَدَّمَتْ يَدَاهُ وَيَقُولُ ٱلْكَافِرُ يَٰلَيْتَنِي كُنْتُ تُرَٰبًا

Indeed, We have warned you of an imminent punishment—the Day every person will see ˹the consequences of˺ what their hands have done, and the disbelievers will cry, “I wish I were dust.”

if only, I wish, would (would God) that...; expresses an unattainable wish


ама

Cognate with the Dolgan word above. Also compare Tuvan анаа (anaa, “normal, ordinary”).

at the beginning of a sentence, expresses improbability or doubt


مر

From Middle Persian [script needed] (ml /mar/, “number; account; class”).

inh

Occurs before a word or phrase followed by را (râ), the accusative-dative-genitive marker. [rare after 12th c.]

Used redundantly with را, with no additional meaning.

that very, only; used with a restrictive sense.

Used to denote that را is being used for an indirect object, especially in later usage when را became increasingly associated with the direct object.

مرین مرد را گفتم. (obsolete)

سلام کن ز من ای باد مر خراسان را
مر اهل فضل و خرد را نه عام نادان را

c. 1080, Nāṣir-i Khusraw, “Qaṣīda 4”, in دیوان ناصرخسرو [Dīvān of Nāṣir-i Khusraw]:

O wind, send my greetings to Khurāsān,
To its wise and excellent men, not to the ignorant masses.

salām kun zi man ay bād mar xurāsān rā
mar ahl-i fazl u xirad rā na āmm-i nādān rā

In later texts, sometimes used without را simply for archaic effect, without any semantic meaning.

بمن همیشه جفا گر کنی نمیرنجم
که دیدهام ز تو الطاف بی حد و بی مر

c. 1520, Selim I of the Ottoman Empire, edited by Benedek Péri, The Persian Dīvān of Yavuz Sulṭān Selīm, Budapest, Hungary: Research Centre for the Humanities, Eötvös Loránd Research Network, →ISBN, page 75:

Though you always torment me, I am not vexed,
For I have seen favors from you beyond count and limit.

ba-man hamēša jafā gar kunī na-mē-ranjam
ki dīda'am zi tu altāf-i bē hadd u bē mar


daʼ

Daʼ díísh Tségháhoodzánígóó atiin?


woll

Dann kommste so um vier, woll?

(regional, Sauerland, Tyrol, occasionally elsewhere in NRW) right?, isn't it?


として

映画監督として知られている。

父の代わりとして委員会に出席した。

Chichi no kawari to shite iinkai ni shusseki shita.

I attended a committee in place of my father.


ʻe

A vocative particle, used for direct address.


ხოლმე

ზამთრობით ვსტუმრობდი ხოლმე მათ.

Used to mark repetitive or habitual action. In past references, it is often accompanied by the conditional screeve, and corresponds to the English ‘used to, was wont to’.


czyż

Czyż to nie piękne?

(emphatic) interrogative particle: introduces a yes-no question


ნუღარ

head

ნუღარ • (nuɣar)

ნუღარ დალევ


ხოლო

(literary) however, whereas (contrasts whatever follows with something mentioned earlier)


მოდი

Intensifies the expression of a desire or order by adding a nuance of pleading, and is equivalent to the English let’s.


განა

განა ყველანი მოვიდნენ?

adds a nuance of surprise to questions, and is used when the response is expected to be negative (that is, the speaker expects the proposition in the question to be denied)


-ღა

ვინღა?

Adds a nuance of astonishment, irritation, despair.

ოჯახიღა დარჩა


ნუთუ

From Old Georgian ნუთუ (nutu). Equivalent to ნუ (nu, negative particle) + თუ (tu, “if”). Compare the similar development in Armenian միթե (mitʻe).

compound

ნუთუ მართლა წავიდა?

Used in interrogative sentences to add a nuance of doubt, surprise, or astonishment, implying that the speaker thinks of the circumstance as improbable.


awer

From Middle High German aver, from Old High German avur, afar. The expected form is *uewer; the a- is probably due to a levelling influence by cognate German aber, since the native forms show many variants (ower, iewer, iewel, ewel, partly through conflation with Middle High German *evenwal; compare Dutch evenwel).

Dat dauert awer laang!

used to express astonishment, a reproach; but


sri

From Sanskrit श्री (śrī). Spelling is influenced from Javanese ꦱꦿꦶ (sri). Cognate to Malay seri.

used as a respectful title (like "Reverend") to the names of eminent persons.


უნდა

The verbal meaning comes directly from Old Georgian უნდა, which used to be the imperfect, thus the -დ- screeve marker, the modern form created required screeves (უნდოდა, უნდოდეს).

მგონი უნდა მიხვიდე მასთან და ბოდიში მოუხადო

I think you should go and apologize to her

mgoni unda mixvide mastan da bodiši mouxado

აუცილებლად უნდა დატოვო ქვეყანა


-ო

marks a phrase or sentence as the words of a third person. It also often marks sayings and proverbs.


ნეტავი

head

ნეტავი • (neṭavi)


ნეტა

ნეტა • (neṭa)

Expresses wishes and desires, and may be translated as how good it would be if…! or how I wish that…!, if only

Adds to questions a nuance of astonishment, disbelief or wonder. It may sometimes be translated using such phrases as how good it would be to know…! or if I only knew…! or how I wish to know…! or I wonder.


ნეტავ

ნეტავ • (neṭav)


راهیسې

راهیسې • (râhise)

ps-par

راهیسې • (râhise)


راسې

head

راسې • (râse)

ps-par

راسې • (râse)


namba

Tulait em i kolim “De,” na tudak em i kolim “Nait.” Nait i go pinis na moning i kamap. Em i de namba wan.

1989, Buk Baibel long Tok Pisin, Port Moresby: Bible Society of Papua New Guinea, Jenesis 1:5:

Used to make a cardinal number into an ordinal number


eti

Gaulish: eti, t-ic

n-g

Old Irish: formed absolute and deuterotonic verb forms

Proto-Brythonic: formed absolute verbal forms

From Proto-Indo-European *éti. The particle *eti is currently the mainstream explanation for the difference between the absolute and conjunct forms in Old Irish and Old Welsh. However, other explanations of the absolute and conjunct have been proposed:
* Cowgill and Kortlandt reconstruct this particle as *es and derive it from Proto-Indo-European *h₁ésti (“is”).
* Roma and Budassi reconstruct subject pronouns instead of *eti as the clitic(s) that differentiated absolute and conjunct forms. They believe that their reconstruction also has the advantage of explaining the subject pronouns (like mé, tú, é, etc.) not occurring as subjects of inflected verbs in Old Irish.
* McCone opposes all forms of the “particle hypothesis” and claims the postulated sentence particle faces more difficulties than it solves and requires numerous dubious ad hoc phonological assumptions. Instead he postulates the generalization of topicalized clause-initial verbs whose final -i was shielded by other enclitics if present, and then homogenization of forms with and without following enclitics in this position.


نہ

Inherited from Sauraseni Prakrit 𑀡 (ṇa), from Sanskrit न (na), likely influenced by Classical Persian نه (na). Doublet of نا (nā).

!از راہ کرم یہ نہ پیجیے!

not, don't, do not (subjunctive negation)

میرا نام بہت لمبا ہے، نہ؟

used in rhetorical phrases: isn't it, -n't, is it not (he/she/it/they)


ხომ

Armenian: խոմ (xom)

ხომ ასეა?

ხომ არ გაგიგონია?

ხომ არ დაიკარგა?

Used when the response is expected to be confirmative. It is not used with the interrogative pronouns, adjectives or adverbs.


znaczy

in other words, namely, that is, that is to say


သ

ကြိုက်သလား။

ဘာ လုပ်နေသလဲ။

Alternative form of တယ် (tai) (realis marker), used before another phrase particle.


သ

the sign of the future or subjunctive, in order works it is used with the most verbs.


ना

आप यहाँ ना बैठें।

not; don't; do not (subjunctive negation)

वह बहुत बात करता है ना?

है ना?


ဝ

Burmese script form of va (“like, as if”)


ဝ

ဢေဝ ဢေဝ#Pali

Burmese script form of va, sandhi form of ဧဝ／ဨဝ／ဢေဝ (eva, “even”)


hwo

Mázaškaŋškaŋ tóna hwo?

question-marking particle used by men in formal speech


လ

လိမ့် လိမ့်#Burmese

particle used as an abbreviated form of particles လေ (le), လိမ့် (lim.), လတ် (lat)

particle prefixed to verbs for emphasis or euphony


सदा

Devanagari script form of sadā (“always”)


ရ

From Proto-Sino-Tibetan *k-ra (“strength; to win; classifier for people”); cognate with အား (a:, “strength; force”), Old Chinese 力 (OC *rɯɡ, “id”) (STEDT).

der

particle suffixed to verbs and collocating with the postpositional markers မည် (many), သည် (sany) or the particle မ (ma.) to convey an imperative mood

particle suffixed to verbs to denote a certain capability or utility

particle suffixed to a verb denoting affirmation of some action or occurrence

particle suffixed to nouns as emphasis or to verbs for assonance


არც

არც შამფური დაწვა არც მწვადი (idiomatic)
arc šampuri dac̣va arc mc̣vadi
He didn't burn neither skewer nor shashlik


níor

of a following consonant (triggers-lenition)

Níor thuig mé.

Níor chuala mé thú.


níor

Níor cheardaí an té a rinne é.


թե

գնա՞ց թե

(Hamshen) serves as an interrogative particle


ہاں

Inherited from Sauraseni Prakrit 𑀳𑀸𑀫𑁆𑀫 (hāmma), from Sanskrit आम् (ām).

inh+

ہاں یہ صحیح ہے


ఔను

అవును అవును#Telugu


ہی

Inherited from Sanskrit हि (hi, “indeed, surely, of course, certainly”, emphatic particle).

inh+

مَیں ہی یہ کام خَتَم کَرُوں گا۔

مَیں یہ کام خَتَم ہی کَرُوں گا۔


ही

Inherited from Sanskrit हि (hi, emphatic particle) likely with some other particle such as एव (eva, “indeed”) or वै (vai, “indeed”). Compare the functionally equivalent Gujarati જ (ja), Marathi -च (-ċ) (whence Bombay Hindi -ईच (-īc)).

वह ही यह काम ख़त्म करेगा।

वह यह काम ख़तम ही करेगा।


ही

तोही येणार आहे.


तो

Inherited from Sauraseni Prakrit, probably from Sanskrit ततस् (tatas, “from there”).

तू ठीक तो है न?

नेहा तो अच्छी है।

Neha is good. (nuance: Speaking of Neha, She is good.)

a topic marking emphatic particle; at least; right?


𒋫

𒄑𒆵𒆠𒋫 𒂗𒆤𒆠𒂠

𒌓 𒌓𒁺𒋫 𒌓 𒋗𒍑

𒁹 𒇻𒊺 𒈗𒂊 𒄈𒋫 𒅔𒄤

the king killed one fattened sheep with a dagger

𒀉 𒀭𒀏𒋫
a₂ ᵈnanše-ta
thanks to the strength of the goddes Nanshe


သမီး

particle suffixed to a noun to denote a kindred relation not founded on blood


ـی

From Middle Persian Y (ī), from Proto-Iranian *Hyáh, from Proto-Indo-Iranian *Hyás, from Proto-Indo-European *yós (relative pronoun).

inh

Appendix:Persian ezâfe
Appendix:Persian ezâfe#English

the grammatical particle ezafe; see Appendix:Persian ezâfe


oby

obym (combined-form object-first-person object-singular)
obyśmy (combined-form object-first-person object-plural)
obyś (combined-form object-second-person object-singular)
obyście (combined-form object-plural object-second-person)
oby (combined-form object-singular object-third-person)
oby (combined-form object-plural object-third-person)

hopefully, if only, let, may, had better


tož

Tož tady to je.

„Tož demokracii bychom už měli; teď ještě nějaké ty demokraty.“ ― „So for now the democracy we already have – now we need some democrats as well.“ (T. G. Masaryk)


ゟ

〆

Japanese ligatures and scribal abbreviations

ヽ 〱 ()

iteration mark for katakana; iteration mark for multiple kana


သန်း

particle suffixed to a verb to convey a sense of going or lying across (equivalent in usage to adverbs, 'across', 'athwart')


candra

mencandrakan [agent focus + causative benefactive]

used in the form mencandrakan (“to depict; to illustrate”)

used in the form pencandraan (“depiction; illustration”)


မင်း

particle suffixed to some adjectives to denote a sense of being extreme


bộ

LL-Q9199 (vie)-Jessica Nguyen (Pamputt)-bộ.wav

Bộ tụi bây thấy chán lắm hay sao vậy?

Do you guys just get seriously bored or what?

sentence-initial question particle, is it that? do...? I bet ...


ဘဲ

ဒီမှာဘဲ နေရ်ခဲ့

ခင်ဗျာ့သူငယ်ချင်းဘဲ ရေးတာလား

သိတာပေါ့ ကျွန်တော့် ညီတဝမ်းကွဲဘဲ

Used after any sentence element or an entire sentence to add emphasis, indeed, really


များ

Inherited from Proto-Sino-Tibetan *m(r/y)a (“many, much”). Cognate with Tibetan བྲ་ (bra, “to have in plenty, aboud”) (STEDT).

cog

particle suffixed to nouns or verbs for emphasis


သေး

စောပါသေးတယ်

မပြန်ချင်သေးပါဘူ

particle suffixed to a verb for emphasis: yet, still, so far

ယိုးဒယားလိုလဲ ပြောတတ်သေးတယ်

ဘယ်သူ လာသေးသလဲ
bhaisu lase:sa.lai:
Who else came?


ကြီး

Inherited from Proto-Tibeto-Burman *b-gryas (“old”). Compare Old Chinese 耆 (OC *ɡri, “old”) (STEDT).

inh+

particle suffixed to words as an emphasis

particle suffixed to some replicated verbs or adjectives to form adverbs


နည်း

Traditionally considered (by Judson, MED, etc.) to be borrowed from Pali naya (“leading”); in this latter case, the word would be a doublet of နယ (na.ya.).
However, in light of a potential cognate in Lai [script needed] (niŋ, “way, method, custom”), which has similar phonetics and semantics, but which traditionally has had little to no contact with Indic civilization, the Pali derivation becomes less likely, as the words may stem from a Proto-Tibeto-Burman *niŋ (“way, method, custom”) (STEDT).

inh

(archaic) particle suffixed to a noun to denote similarity: like, in the same manner as


နည်း

particle ending an interrogative sentence or phrase


poʻe

poʻe wahine – women

ka poʻe wahine – the women

Plural marker, mainly used for nouns describing human beings


သား

From Proto-Sino-Tibetan *sja-n (“meat”).

numerical classifier used in counting the number of ticals or fractions of a tical or viss


သား

particle suffixed to a verb or adjective to convey the sense of being definite or explicit

word used to lend emphasis to a prayer, wish, oath, etc.


זהו

head

זֶהוּ • (zéhu)

compound

זֶה (zé) + הוּא (hú)


արդյոք

head

արդյոք • (ardyokʻ)

hy-particle

արդյոք • (ardyokʻ)

արդյո՞ք նա կգա


ခြေ

Inherited from Old Burmese ခြိယ် (khriy), from Proto-Sino-Tibetan *krəj (“foot, footstool”).

inh

particle suffixed to nouns to denote a collection of things or persons


кажется

head

ка́жется • (kážetsja)

ка́жется (canonical)
kážetsja (romanization)

Ru-кажется.ogg

Мне ка́жется, (что) я его́ где́-то ви́дел.
Mne kážetsja, (što) ja jevó gdé-to vídel.
It seems to me (i.e. I think) I saw him somewhere.


ider

Although it actually comes from the suffix Salar -dir < *turur, it has ceased to be a suffix, influencing by Salar ira which is a borrowing from Old Uyghur [script needed] (erür).


رو

See the etymology of the corresponding lemma form.

nonlemma

(colloquial, Iran) Colloquial Iranian form of را (râ)


հիրավի

Learned borrowing from Old Armenian յիրաւի (yirawi).


ʻo

Placed at the beginning of nominative phrases to signify that they are declarative


örneğin

From örnek + -in. Coined by Turkish writer, poet and literary critic Nurullah Ataç and was supposed to displace mesela.

coin

Lewis, Geoffrey (1999) The Turkish Language Reform: A Catastrophic Success, Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press, page 88


ვერა

Used with verbs and denotes that agent noun was, is or will not be able to do something.


гын

таче толеш гын?

мо лиеш гын?


რაღა

head

რაღა • (raɣa)


kꜣ

(with following subjunctive or nonverbal predicate) so, then, as a result; expresses future consequence

(with following suffix pronoun/subject and imperfective) then; expresses subsequent action


kꜣ

(with following suffix pronoun indicating the speaker) marks a future direct quotation; will say


aciu

used only in the phrases por aciu and per aciu


やら

何やら白い物が浮いている。

There seems to be something white floating (there).

An informal alternative to the か (ka) suffix for interrogatives.


wyraźnie

From wyraźny + -ie. Compare Kashubian wërazno and Silesian wyraźnie.

clearly (without a doubt; obviously; to a degree clearly discernible)


ba-

Nik badaukat erantzun zuzena.

Prefixed to verb forms to show emphasis.


ledwo

Inherited from Old Polish jedwo, ledwo, from Proto-Slavic *(j)edъvà. Cognate to Czech jedva, Russian едва́ (jedvá) and Serbo-Croatian је̏два.


ахын

ахын • (axən)

Угьыгьанахын умкьан!

Заԥхьагәара ҟааӷҟеитахын.

because (a particle added to a finished verbal form or to an attributive nominal form, showing a causal relationship between two sentences)


thôi

Non-Sino-Vietnamese reading of Chinese 退 (SV: thối, thoái).
For the tonal correspondence, see other post-reconstructed Old Chinese, pre-Middle Chinese loans such as bèn, buôn, chung, cùng, where words with Vietnamese A/bằng tones correspond to Qieyun system tone C/去聲／去声 (qùshēng). Particularly compare đôi (“pair”), which exhibits the exact same correspondence in the rime as with thôi.

der

SV: <i class="Latn mention" lang="vi">thối, thoái</i>

vi-etym-sino

(colloquial, used sentence-finally) that's all; merely; only; just

(colloquial, used sentence-initially) introduces a new statement that contradicts previously stated statement(s)


ʻia

Ua ʻike ʻia ke koholā e nā kelamoku.

used after a verb to denote passive voice


iā

Aloha wau iā ʻoe.

object marker of a verb, used before personal pronouns and personal names


కారము

head

కారము • (kāramu)

A particle added to a letter in naming it.


ដឹង

km-particle

ដឹង • (dəng)

final particle with rising intonation, expressing uncertainty or doubt: is it possible, perhaps, who knows, do you know, did you know


chúng

[t͡ɕʊwŋ͡m˧˦]

[t͡ɕʊwŋ͡m˦˧˥]


סך

אַ סך
אַ סך#Yiddish

קיין סך
קיין סך#Yiddish

Only used in אַ סך (a sakh) and קיין סך (keyn sakh)


ornot

(Singapore, colloquial) Alternative form of or not


かも知れない

かも知れない (canonical)
ka mo shirenai (romanization)

This is a compound phrase of the interrogative particle か (ka, used to form questions, also used as a coordinating particle similar to English whether), the inclusive particle も (mo, “even, also”) plus the negative potential non-past form 知(し)れない (shirenai, literally “can not know”) of the verb 知(し)る (shiru, “to know something”), all together literally meaning “can not even know whether [preceding statement]”.

ja-r

used to form questions, also used as a coordinating particle similar to English <i class="Latn mention" lang="en">whether</i>

雨降るかもしれない。

It cannot even be known whether it will rain. → It might rain.


swt

but; indicates contrast of the current clause with the preceding one


bagatela

Borrowed from French bagatelle or Italian bagatella.

used to emphasize the importance and value of something just said


quemeh

Quema. ſi. afirmando algo.
Quemaca. idem.
Quemacatzin. idem.
Queme. idem.
(Quema. yes. affirming something.
Quemaca. idem.
Quemacatzin. idem.
Queme. idem.)

1571, Alonso de Molina, Vocabulario en lengua castellana y mexicana y mexicana y castellana, f. 88v. col. 2:


quemah

Quema. ſi. afirmando algo.
(Quema. yes. affirming something.)


wprost

exactly, precisely (used to provide emphasis)


μην

From μη (mi), from Ancient Greek μή (mḗ, “not”).


przykładowo

From przykładowy + -o. First attested in 1872.

ref

Niwa : dwutygodnik naukowy, literacki i artystyczny (in Polish), volumes 1, 1, number 8, 1872 April 15, page 200


is it

You forgot, is it?

(Singapore, Wales) Final interrogative particle forming a tag question.


jḫ

Amarna-period Late Egyptian, c. 1350 BCE

i-a:N35B-a:t*W-i-im:m-a-mw-Hr-Z1-Dba-Z2:k\-i-x-Y2-w-S-b-A2-k\-w-Sd-d:t-A2-k\-!-md-d-w-A2-k\:n-sw-t:n-G7-ib*Z1:k\-m-a:k\-w-S-b-A2-k\-D35:n-n-i-t-i-t-A2
jꜥ tw jmj mw ḥr ḏbꜥw.k jḫ wšb.k wšd.t(w).k mdw.k n nswt jb.k m-ꜥ.k wšb.k nn njtjt

c. 2000 BCE – 1900 BCE, Tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor (pHermitage/pPetersburg 1115) lines 13–17

Wash yourself, put water on your fingers,
so you might answer when you are addressed, speak to the king with your mind in your possession, and answer without stammering.

then, thus; introduces a clause with consequent optative meaning, expressing something the speaker wishes or requests to happen as a result


mj

Possibly to be identified with the proclitic particle m (“see, behold”).

(following a verb in the imperative) strengthens an imperative; please, now


つつ

様々な目的や意味を込めつつ食事をしている。

Samazama na mokuteki ya imi o kome tsutsu shokuji o shiteiru.

People have meals with various goals or meanings.

while, -ing, for two actions happening at once


bae

head

bae (Sawndip forms 𭆛 or 丕 or 批 or 䢙 or 贝 or 𫨰, 1957–1982 spelling bəi)

𭆛 (Sawndip)
丕 (Sawndip)
批 (Sawndip)
䢙 (Sawndip)
贝 (Sawndip)
𫨰 (Sawndip)

From Proto-Tai *pajᴬ (“to go”). Cognate with Thai ไป (bpai), Northern Thai ᨻᩱ (pai), Khün ᨻᩱ (pai), Lao ໄປ (pai), Lü ᦺᦔ (ṗay) and ᦺᦗ (pay), Tai Dam ꪼꪜ, Shan ပႆ (pǎi), Aiton ပႝ (pay), Bouyei bail.

Used after a verb to indicate removal of an object.


ค่า

ค่ะ ค่ะ#Thai

(colloquial) Alternative form of ค่ะ (kâ)


ไหน

which; why (used to express complaining, claiming, or doubting mood)


ไซ้

พระไอยการลักษณผัวเมีย
๖๘ มาตราหนึ่ง ผัวเมียอยู่ด้วยกัน ต่างคนต่างผิดใจกัน จะหย่ากันไซ้ ให้หญิงส่งสีนสอดขันหมากแก่ชาย ถ้ามีลูกด้วยกันไซ้ ท่านมิให้ส่งสีนสอดขันหมากแก่ชายเลย
hòk-sìp bpɛ̀ɛt mâat-dtraa nʉ̀ng pǔua miia yùu dûai gan dtàang kon dtàang pìt-jai gan jà yàa gan sái hâi yǐng sòng sǐn-sɔ̀ɔt kǎn-màak gɛ̀ɛ chaai tâa mii lûuk dûai gan sái tân mí hâi sòng sǐn-sɔ̀ɔt kǎn-màak gɛ̀ɛ chaai ləəi
68. Another section is as follows: When a man and wife live together, and become at variance with each other, and thus want to divorce, the woman shall return the bride price and paan bowl to the man. But if they already have a child, it is prescribed that the bride price and paan bowl need not to be returned to the man at all.

ไซร้ ไซร้#Thai


ไส้

ไสร้ ไสร้#Thai


jsṯ

converts a nonverbal sentence into a dependent adverbial (circumstantial) clause; while, when, although


jsw

Demotic: js

Coptic: ⲉⲓⲥ (eis, “behold”)


jn

i:n quotative (canonical)
i-n (masculine singular)
etc. (masculine singular)
jn (masculine singular)
j-jn (masculine singular)
i-t-i-n (feminine singular)
j.t-jn (feminine singular)
i-n-s-n:y (dual masculine)
j.n.snj (dual masculine)
i-n-s-n:y (dual feminine)
j.n.snj (dual feminine)
j.n.sn (masculine plural)
j.n.sn (feminine plural)

Univerbation of j (“to say”) + (.w) (third-person masculine singular stative ending) + jn (“by”, the preposition above). The feminine form is a univerbation of j (“to say”) + .t(j) (third-person feminine singular stative ending) + jn (“by”, the preposition above), and the plural and dual are derived from the perfect of the verb j (“to say”) with a third-person plural or dual suffix pronoun (.sn or .snj, respectively).

af

(with following noun indicating the speaker) marks a non-future direct quotation; says, said


jw

Coptic: ⲉ- (e-)

⇒ Coptic: ⲉⲧⲉ- (ete-)

⇒ Coptic: ⲣⲉϥ- (ref-)

(Old Egyptian, Middle Egyptian) asserts the reality of a following statement with a verb in the perfect, perfect passive, or imperfective, or else with an adverbial or adjectival predicate, probably serving as a realis modal particle; see usage notes

(Old Egyptian, Middle Egyptian) introduces an adverbial clause with a pronominal subject; see usage notes

(chiefly Old Egyptian, rare, with a following bare noun phrase) there is, there are; introduces an independent existential clause

(Late Egyptian) introduces a subordinate circumstantial clause

(Late Egyptian) introduces a sentence in the third future


ήτοι

head

ήτοι • (ítoi)

el-particle

ήτοι • (ítoi)

Πήραν 1250 ψήφους, ήτοι ποσοστό 25%.
Píran 1250 psífous, ítoi posostó 25%.
They got 1250 votes, namely 25%.


ΖΟΑΠΑΝ

Boila zoapan finished this bowl [this drinking cup], which Boutaoul zoapan made suitable for hanging up. (Vilhelm Thomsen, quoted by László and Rácz)
Boila chaban's bowl, which was made to his order; Boutaoul had a buckle made for it, and this is his bowl. (Gyula Németh, quoted by László and Rácz)
Bouila zoapan made this cup; Boutaul Zoapan made this cup suitable for drinking from. (Nikola Mavrodinov, quoted by László and Rácz)

ΒΟΥΗΛΑ ΖΟΑΠΑΝ ΤΕΣΗ ΔΥΓΕΤΟΙΓΗ ΒΟΥΤΑΟΥΛ ΖΩΑΠΑΝ ΤΑΓΡΟΓΗ ΗΤΖΙΓΗ ΤΑΙΣΗ The meaning of this inscription is uncertain. Suggestions include

one of the words of the Buyla inscription, generally thought to be related to the title "župan" ("district leader")


ΤΑΓΡΟΓΗ

tagrogē (romanization)
tagrogi (romanization)

one of the words of the Buyla inscription


ΗΤΖΙΓΗ

ētzigē (romanization)
itzigi (romanization)

One of the words of the Buyla inscription.


ΒΟΥΤΑΟΥΛ

One of the words of the Buyla inscription, generally interpreted as a Turkic personal name.


ΒΟΥΗΛΑ

bouēla (romanization)
bouila (romanization)

The first word of the Buyla inscription, generally interpreted as a Turkic personal name.


ΔΥΓΕΤΟΙΓΗ

dugetoigē (romanization)
dygetygi (romanization)


ΖΩΑΠΑΝ

zōapan (romanization)
zoapan (romanization)

One of the words of the Buyla inscription, generally thought to be related to the title "župan" (from Proto-Slavic *županъ (“district leader”)).


ΤΑΙΣΗ

taisē (romanization)
tesi (romanization)


ᚐᚆᚓᚆᚆᚈᚈᚐᚅᚐᚅ

ᚐᚆᚓᚆᚆᚈᚈᚋᚅᚅᚅ ᚐᚆᚓᚆᚆᚈᚈᚋᚅᚅᚅ#Pictish

A term of uncertain meaning found on the Lunnasting stone, accepted as Pictish and read as ahehhttanan by G. Donaldson. J. R. Allen and J. Anderson read the term as ᚐᚆᚓᚆᚆᚈᚈᚋᚅᚅᚅ (ahehhttmnnn) instead.


ᚐᚆᚓᚆᚆᚈᚈᚋᚅᚅᚅ

ᚐᚆᚓᚆᚆᚈᚈᚐᚅᚐᚅ ᚐᚆᚓᚆᚆᚈᚈᚐᚅᚐᚅ#Pictish

A term of uncertain meaning found on the Lunnasting stone, accepted as Pictish and read as ahehhttmnnn by J. R. Allen and J. Anderson. G. Donaldson reads the term as ᚐᚆᚓᚆᚆᚈᚈᚐᚅᚐᚅ (ahehhttanan) instead.


ᚆᚉᚉᚃᚃᚓᚃᚃ

Possibly cognate with the Welsh cluster chw.

The meaning of this term is uncertain. Found on the Lunnasting stone, accepted as Pictish and read as hccffeff by Samuel Ferguson and as hccvvevv by J. R. Allen and J. Anderson, G. Donaldson and K. Forsyth.


כזה

head

כָּזֶה • (kazé)

כְּ־ (k'-, “like, as”) + זֶה (zé, “this”)


ḥꜣ

Perhaps from ḥww (“to proclaim, to utter”) + ꜣ (intensifying particle).

af

if only, would that; expresses a wish, with uncertainty about it coming true, or a polite request


կոր

From Turkish -yor (“present continuous tense suffix”). Alternatively, from կը (kə) + որ (or), but in any case influenced by Turkish -yor.

der

կ՚երթամ կոր, գործ ունիմ

Used in present and past continuous indicative constructions in order to differentiate from the simple present and past, respectively.


ஆ

அது சென்னைக் கடற்கரையா?


ஆ

ஆ கடற்கரை


arb

head

arb (copular form used before adjective, adverb, or pronoun beginning with vowels)

duine arb ionann é agus gach duine eile

a person who is the same as everyone else

duine arb as an mbaile céanna leat féin é

a person who is from the same town as yourself

an fear arb é a mhac an t-iascaire

Introduces an indirect relative clause; present/future tense


πω

up to this time, yet (as a negative polarity item)

at all, ever (as a negative polarity item)


kë

kë (masculine adjectival i kë, feminine singular e kë, masculine plural të kë, feminine plural të këa)

i kë (adjectival masculine)
e kë (feminine singular)
të kë (masculine plural)
të këa (feminine plural)

From Proto-Albanian *ku ̊, from Proto-Indo-European *kʷu- (“who, where”), derived from *kʷ-. Cognate to Gothic pronominal element for the formation of indefinite pronouns -hun. A deictic particle of remote distance. It only occurs in the pronominal system as the first member of a compound.


leh

Our appointment leh? ― What about our appointment?

No leh, it’s right here. ― No? It’s right here.

OK, this one, leh?

2002 May 14, Niamh O’Leary, The Straits Times, Singapore, page L2:

You got send [e-mail] meh? I never receive leh.

2010 August 22, Fiona Chan, The Sunday Times, Singapore, page 13:

It’s next week leh. ― Just so you know, it’s next week.

Thirty-five thousand jobs, leh. Not something to sneeze at.

2005 April 22, Lee Kin Mun, Today, Singapore, page 30:

Highlights new and relevant information.

Close the door leh. ― Why don’t you close the door?

Sing us a song, leh.

1994, C.S. Chong, NS: An Air-Level Story, page 29:

Still got risotto in the fridge leh. ― There’s still some risotto in the fridge.

— We can try taking the train.
— I don’t think we’ll have enough time leh.

Used to indicate disagreement with a suggestion.

I don’t think that’s accurate leh.


တို့

Apocopic form of ကျုပ်တို့ (kyuptui.), ငါတို့ (ngatui.). Inherited from Old Burmese အတိဝ် (atiw).

particle suffixed to some verbs for emphasis or euphony


တတ်

verbal particle used as sentence final marker, in composition


ဆုံး

cog

Tibetan རྫོགས (rdzogs, “to be at an end”)

အစိမ်းဆုံး

particle usually suffixed to a verbal noun or sometimes a noun to indicate superlative degree: the most


ទាន

km-particle

ទាន • (tiən)

indicating politeness or respect, often placed at the end of a sentence.


yass

Yass. I never got above the rank of shavetail. We were the dogfaces who gave ’em hell at Chateau Thierry.

1962, Joseph Commings, “The X Street Murders”, in The Mammoth Book of Perfect Crimes & Impossible Mysteries, published 2006:

Pronunciation spelling
pronunciation spelling

(US, dialectal, Scotland) Pronunciation spelling of yes.


ရပ်

From Proto-Sino-Tibetan *g-r(j)ap. Cognate with Cantonese 立 (laap⁶), Dzongkha ཞབས (zhabs, “leg, foot”), Jingpho tsap (“stand”), Nuosu ꉆ (hxit, “stand, stand up”), Lisu ꓦꓰꓼ (h̃è̱, “stand, stand up, stand straight”).

cog

numerical classifier used in itemisation and expressing things in terms of a man's height


ပေး

Inherited from Old Burmese ပိယ်ဟ် (piyh), from Proto-Sino-Tibetan *s-bəj-n/k (“to give”) or Proto-Sino-Tibetan *pîʔ (“to give”). Cognate with Tibetan སྦྱིན (sbyin, “to give, to bestow”) and Old Chinese 畀 (OC *pids, “to give”) (STEDT).

cog

particle suffixed to a verb to denote that whatever that is being done is for somebody else

particle used after a verb to show encouragement or exhortation


ရက်

particle placed after verbs to denote a lack of consideration


дескать

head

де́скать • (déskatʹ)

де́скать (canonical)
déskatʹ (romanization)

Ru-дескать.ogg

О́н, де́скать, не зна́л.

A particle introducing reported speech; (he/she) says, (they) say

Он кивну́л: де́скать, дава́й.

A particle introducing the explanation of someone's thoughts, gestures, or behavior; meaning, like, as if saying


နီ

ယတထံၣ်ဘူအီၤနီတဘျီဘၣ်.

particle used in negative clauses before a classifier phrase to express that there is not a single instance of something


လေ

သူတို့မှာ မရှိဘူးလေ

Used to soften an indicative sentence: you see, you know?, remember?, after all

ပိတ်ချင်ယင် ပိတ်လေ

Used to soften an imperative sentence: if that's okay, if you don't mind, if you want


について

に (ni, “to”, a particle which modifies the previous word) + ついて (tsuite, -te conjunctive form of the verb 就く (tsuku))

com-ja

-te conjunctive form of the verb <i class="Jpan mention" lang="ja">就く</i> (tsuku)


ရေ

word used as a suffix to the name of the person hailed


μέν

Greek: μεν (men)

From Proto-Hellenic *hmén, from Proto-Indo-European *smé. Cognate with Sanskrit स्म (smá).

on the one hand, while, whereas (often left untranslated)

(before other particles) accordingly, and so


ども

Auxiliary suffix ど (do, contrasting conjunction suffix) + particle も (mo).


arī

Formed from the particle ar with an extra ī (cf. Ancient Greek ἄρ (ár), ἄρα (ára, “so, then”), with an extra a).

māsai līdzi atnāca arī brālis

together with the sister came also (her) brother

tas, kas ar vēju nāk, ar vēju arī iet

that which comes with the wind also goes with the wind

kad iesāki darbu, arī bija pavasaris, tikai cits

when you began the work, it was spring, too, just another (one)

rāva vienu sērkociņu: tas nedega; rāva otru: tas arī nedegas

he stroke one match: it didn't burn; he stroke another: it didn't burn either

used to indicate connection, addition; too, also, (in negative sentences) either

galu galā tik slikti arī nemaz nebija, lai redz pasaule, ka viņi nekaunas no nabagiem radiem

in the end, it wasn't so bad either, let the world see that they were not ashamed of their poor relatives

no iesākuma gan Kārlēns pļaujot cirta sīkāk, palika drusku iepakaļus, bet drīz arī šī starpība nolīdzinājās

in the beginning Kārlēns, (while) mowing, cut more finely, he left a little bit behind, but soon also this gap was evened out

used to indicate addition and concession; too, also, (in negative sentences) either

Anneli nekur nelaida... kur viņai arī vajadzēja iet!

(they) didn't let Annele go anywhere... where could she go anyway!

viesulis reiz nopostīja mūsu māju; veca jau arī bija

a whirlwind once destroyed our house; indeed it was old

dzidrums tumšajās acīs neapdzisa arī tad, kad viņa tās nolaida zemāk

the gleam in (her) dark eyes did not go out even when she lowered them

used to mark emphasis, intensification; anyway, indeed, even

aizkrējis uz lauku saimnieks, arī saimniece

the landlord ran out of the field, and also the landlady

katram revolūcijas cīnītājam bijis savs īpatns uzdevums dzīvē, arī sava īpaša, raksturīga dzīva cilvēka fiziskā seja

every revolutionary fighter has their own specific task in life, as well as their own specific, characteristic living person's face

(as a conjunction) used to link a single element to the preceding utterance; and also..., as well as...

Anna nekā neatbildēja, arī Juris cieta kluss

Anna didn't answer anything, and Juris (also) kept silent

Vācieši raķetes vairs nelaida. Arī šāvienu nedzirdēja.

The Germans didn't shoot any more rockets. Also no (gun)shots were heard.

(as a conjunction) used to link a clause, dependent or independent, to the preceding utterance; and, also, as well


နှင့်

(literary) (used with မ (ma.) to form a negative imperative)


လျှင်

particle occurring between numerical nouns to delineate their relationship


လို့

Uncertain although it can be tentatively compared to Old Burmese ရုယ် (ruy), the ancient form of ရွေ့. Also note similarity with 由 (OC *lɯw, “from, by, due to, reason”).

...လို့ခေါ်တယ်။ ― ...lui.hkautai|| ― it is called...

(colloquial) following nominal; a particle occurring in collocation with the verb “to be called”

(colloquial) following predicate or clause; used for denoting reported speech; that


ကောင်း

particle following a verb denoting probability or suitability


လုံး

From Proto-Sino-Tibetan *m-lu(ŋ/m) (“heart; round”). Cognate with Drung tvleum (“round”), Jingpho lum (“round”) and Tibetan ཟླུམ (zlum, “round; spherical”).

inh

particle suffixed to some nouns to denote: all, entire, whole

particle suffixed to a noun to denote an entity

particle suffixed to a noun to convey the sense of it being very much in evidence

particle suffixed to some verbs to form verbal nouns and convey the sense of being contrived or hollow


-이라

Short for 이라고 (-irago, introduces direct quotes, etc.).


ně

From Proto-Slavic *ne, from Proto-Balto-Slavic *ne, from Proto-Indo-European *ne.

no (used to show disagreement or negation)


のに

Combination of particle の (no, the genitive or possessive marker, also used to nominalize verbs and adjectives) + particle に (ni, locative and directional marker).

もう春なのに

ああ、ちょうどよかったのに。

かわいかったのになぁ…

even though, although (in spite of the fact that)

早くすればいいのに…

although it would have been good if I did it sooner

怒りを表すのに用いられる


vallë

Cognate with Romanian oare, oară, with the same usage. Likely ultimately from Proto-Indo-European *welh₁- (“to wish”), though the trajectory is uncertain. Compare German wohl (“possibly”).

përse vallë?

Κοὺ βάλ' ἔ̰σ̈τε̰ μπρέτι ἰ Τζιφούτετ κ̇ὲ̰ οὐ λὲ;

1827, Vangjel Meksi, Δγιάτα ἐ ῥέ, Matthew 2:2, page 3:

Where, I wonder, is the king of the Jews that was born?

used in questions to emphasise doubt, uncertainty or disbelief.


မြို့

ထိုမြို့ ထိုမြို့#Burmese

(archaic) particle suffixed to a pronoun denoting "other than", mainly used in ထိုမြို့ (htui-mrui.)


ပြီး

Inherited from Proto-Lolo-Burmese *N-bri¹/² (“full, complete”) (STEDT). Cognate with Lahu bi (“full”); outside of Lolo-Burmese, compare Old Chinese 罷 (OC *breːlʔ, *bral, *bralʔ, “to cease, finish, complete”).

och-l

word to indicate the completion of an act, etc.


ʻana

Follows a verb to make it into a verbal noun that functions like a gerund


っけ

この単語の意味は何でしたっけ？

What was the meaning of this word, again?

へー、そうだったっけ。

again? particle indicating that the speaker is trying to recall some information


ったら

Contraction of ...と言いったら (... to ittara)

ね。ね！ねったら！

もう、私ったら。

1979, Yoshiyuki Tomino, Mobile Suit Gundam, episode 10, spoken by Garma Zabi (Katsuji Mori):

シャア … 図ってったな！シャア！

Char... You're plotting on me! Char!
[After finding himself betrayed]


ąąʼ

ąąʼ átʼé

ąąʼ ádoolnííł

ąąʼ ályaa


なんで

(informal) Contraction of なので (na no de).


ပေါ့

ဒါရောင်းတာ မဟုတ်ဘူးပေါ့လေ။ (daraung:ta ma.hutbhu:pau.le||)
He was, like, I'm not selling them, you know?
အဲဒါနဲ့ လွင်မိုးကလည်း ဝမ်းသာအားရပေါ့နော်။ (ai:danai. lwangmui:ka.lany: wam:saa:ra.pau.nau||)

2005, San San Hnin Tun, "Discourse particles in Burmese", in Justin Watkins (ed.), Studies in Burmese Linguistics, p. 193

So then Lwin Moe was, like, really delighted, you know.

(chiefly colloquial) like (mild intensifier; used to mean "to say" or "to think")

အက်စီဒင့် ဖြစ်သွားတာပေါ့နော်။ (akcidang. hpracswa:tapau.nau||)

2005, San San Hnin Tun, “Discourse particles in Burmese”, in Justin Watkins, editor, Studies in Burmese Linguistics, →ISBN, page 193:

akcidang. hpracswa:tapau.nau|| (akcidang. hpracswa:tapau.nau||)

(chiefly colloquial) say (let's say: used to mark an example, supposition, or hypothesis)

ကလဲ့စားချေတဲ့ သဘောမျိုးနဲ့ပေါ့။ (ka.lai.ca:hkyetai. sa.bhau:myui:nai.pau.||)

It was done as a way of getting even, you know.

ka.lai.ca:hkyetai. sa.bhau:myui:nai.pau.|| (ka.lai.ca:hkyetai. sa.bhau:myui:nai.pau.||)

(chiefly colloquial) you know (used to confirm agreement or understanding at the end of a statement)


неужель

head

неуже́ль • (neužélʹ)

неуже́ль (canonical)
neužélʹ (romanization)

Неуже́ль э́то я? Неуже́ли та де́вочка я?

Is it really me? Am I really the same girl?

неуже́ли неужели#Russian

(rare, poetic) Alternative form of неуже́ли (neužéli)


ဝယ်

postpositional marker suffixed to a noun to indicate either temporal or locative case: by, at, in


człowiecze

/t͡ʂwɔˈvjɛ.t͡ʂɛ/

/t͡ʂɫɔˈvjɛ.t͡ʂɛ/

(literary) Alternative form of człowieku


ơi

ơi • (㗒, 意, 𠲖, 喂)

vi-particle

ơi • (㗒, 意, 𠲖, 喂)

Lan ơi!
Lan!

Chú gì ơi!

Anh gì ơi! Anh mua giùm em một vé đi ạ.

Big brother, would you care to buy a [lottery] ticket?

Mẹ ơi! Cơm chín chưa ạ?

Trời (đất) ơi!

Con ơi là con!

À (á à à) ơi. Mẹ ru con ngủ cho ngoan.

Hush, little baby, I'm singing you to sleep.

Má ơi, con về rồi nè !

Tía ơi má dìa.

suffixes someone's name or kinship title, used to call for their attention; compare vâng and dạ


значит

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зна́чит • (znáčit)

зна́чит (canonical)
znáčit (romanization)

Ru-зна́чит.ogg