aby

Inherited from Old Czech aby, from Proto-Slavic *aby. By surface analysis, univerbation of a + by.

surf

Už aby tu byli.

Jenom aby!

Denotes desire or wish; if only; had better


aby

Inherited from Proto-Slavic *aby. By surface analysis, univerbation of a + by.


aby

Polish: aby

Silesian: aby

Inherited from Proto-Slavic *aby. By surface analysis, univerbation of a + by. First attested in the 14th century.

Gdyz bødze sødø, aby wyssedl potøpon (cum iudicatur, exeat condemnatus)

1939 [end of the 14th century], Ryszard Ganszyniec, Witold Taszycki, Stefan Kubica, Ludwik Bernacki, editors, Psałterz florjański łacińsko-polsko-niemiecki [Sankt Florian Psalter], Krakow: Zakład Narodowy imienia Ossolińskich, z zasiłkiem Sejmu Śląskiego [The Ossoliński National Institute: with the benefit of the Silesian Parliament], pages 108, 6:

Abicz ony tesze svoge odzene vpraly (laventque vestimenta sua Ex 19, 10) y cisto ge mely; abycz ony tesze svymi szonamy pospolu ne leszely

Beginning of the 15th century, Łukasz z Wielkiego Koźmina, Kazania gnieźnieńskie, Krakow, page 174b:

(attested in Lesser Poland) may, I wish, if only


aby

→ Yiddish: אַבי (abi)

Inherited from Old Polish aby. By surface analysis, univerbation of a + by.

Near-synonyms: czasami, czasem, przypadkiem

Aby tam będzie?

(colloquial) expresses the speaker's certainty of their statement; happen to, isn't?

(Masuria, Ostróda, Warmia, optative) hopefully; had better; may

(Masuria, Ostróda, Warmia, delimitive) only, just

(Ostróda) seemingly, apparently, ostensibly, supposedly


lol

Are you really that bad lol?

(Internet slang, text messaging) Neutralises the tone of a message; denotes that a message is light-hearted or casual.


ab

(Strehlen and Schömberg, Silesian) negative particle, do not


ab

ab (mutation mutation-radical)
n-ab (eclipsis mutation)
hab (mutation prothesis-h)
t-ab (mutation prothesis-t)

Contraction of the relative particle a and the prevocalic variant of the past/conditional copula particle b’.

Fear maith ab ea é.

buachaill ab áirde ná mo dheartháir

Alternative form of ba (used in relative clauses before a vowel sound).


may

From Proto-Central Philippine *may (existential marker). See also Proto-Malayo-Polynesian *mai (“and”).

May tubig sa bahay.

May pagkain ako rito, sa'yo na lang.

particle used as an existential marker: to be; to have


the

From Proto-Germanic *þa, from Proto-Indo-European *tó, *te-.


fa

gurab Alba fá hainm don chrích sin

2014 [1628–1634], Geoffrey Keating, edited by Beatrix Färber, David Comyn, Patrick S. Dinneen, Foras Feasa ar Éirinn, CELT: Corpus of Electronic Texts:

Is leomhan Ó mBriun an bhean / siur ga seoladh [ar] a son, / síol na n-ealta fa díon damh, / síol glan nach ba creachta ar gcrodh.

1939 [c. 13th century], “Bean ós mhnáibh cáich Cailleach Dé”, in Lambert McKenna, editor, Aithdioghluim Dána, Dublin:

A lion-hero of the Í Bhriuin is this lady, a sister that guides them by her words; noble the offspring of that flock, my guardians (ensuring) that all I own be safe from harrying.

Obsolete form of ba (“was”) (past affirmative and relative of is).


van

Van die wêreld se beste wyne kom van hierdie streek af.

Some of the world’s best wines are from this region.

Ons het met van die belangrikste politieke leiers gespreek.

We have spoken to some of the most important political leaders.

(used with a following definite article) some of (the)


y

From Proto-Celtic *ide- (compare Breton e, ez, Welsh y, yth, Old Irish id), from Proto-Indo-European *h₁i-dʰei- (compare Latin ibi (“here”), Avestan 𐬌𐬛𐬁 (idā, “here, in the same way”), and Sanskrit इह (ihá, “here”)).

cog

Inserted before the verb when the verb precedes the subject


y

Merger of two formerly distinct particles, ydd and yd.
* (1) from earlier ydd, from Middle Welsh yð, from Proto-Celtic *ide- (compare Breton e, ez, Cornish y, yth, Old Irish id), from Proto-Indo-European *h₁i-dʰei- (compare Latin ibi (“here”), Avestan 𐬌𐬛𐬁 (idā, “here, in the same way”), and Sanskrit इह (ihá, “here”)).
* (2) from earlier yd, from Middle Welsh yt, from Old Welsh it, from Proto-Celtic *ita- (compare Breton e, ez); akin to Latin ita (“so, thus”), dialectal Lithuanian it (“as”), and Sanskrit íti (“thus, in this manner”).

mai

with fronted element, marked for emphasis

Wyt ti'n meddwl y gall hi ddod?

Mae hi'n gwybod y byddet ti'n gwrando arni hi.

(literary) that (preverbal particle used to mark a subordinate clause)

y dyn y dysgais ei fab

y ferch y gwrandewais arni

(literary) which, whom (particle used with indirect relative clauses)

Yn y dechreuad y creodd Duw y nefoedd a’r ddaear.

1620, William Morgan, Y Bibl Cyssegr-lan, Genesis 1:1:

In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth.

(colloquial)

(literary) preverbal particle used to mark an affirmative verb in a main clause


nu

Nu labi!

Ko nu?


nu

From Sanskrit नु (nu), from Proto-Indo-European *nu.


um

He um Growling Bear. He um heap big chief.

“me heap brave—me talk to um white man so[…] me good injun, like um white man, mebbe so, ugh!”

1871, “Grand camp meeting on Bear River”, in The Keepapitchinin, volume III, page 3:

(dated, sometimes humorous, often offensive) An undifferentiated determiner or article; a miscellaneous linking word, or filler with nonspecific meaning; representation of broken English stereotypically or comically attributed to Native Americans.


um

Icelandic: um

Faroese: um

desc

Norwegian Nynorsk: um; (dialectal) om, øm

Old Swedish: um

Swedish: om

Danish: om

Norwegian Bokmål: om

→ Norwegian Nynorsk: om

From Proto-Germanic *umbi (“around, about”). Cognate with Old English ymbe, Old Frisian umbe, ombe, Old Saxon umbi, Old High German umbi.

Ek man jǫtna / ár um borna, […]

Vǫluspá, verse 2, lines 1-2, in 1860, T. Möbius, Edda Sæmundar hins fróða: mit einem Anhang zum Theil bisher ungedruckter Gedichte. Leipzig, page 1

(w:Poetic Edda) indicates that the verbal action is completed, compare English “through” as in “read through”. For semantic development, compare adjectival usage of German um.


is

From Old Irish is (“is”), ultimately from Proto-Indo-European *h₁es- (“to be”).

Is múinteoir é Dónall. ― Dónall is a teacher.

Is é Dónall an múinteoir. ― Dónall is the teacher.

Is féidir liom snámh.

Is maith liom tae.

I like tea. (idiomatic adjective predicate)

Is mise a chonaic é.

I'm the one who saw him. (compare Hiberno-English "'Tis I who saw him"; cleft sentence)

Is é Dónall atá ina mhúinteoir. ― It's Dónall who is a teacher.

an buachaill is mó

Is mó an buachaill ná Séamas.

Is é Séamas an buachaill is mó in Éirinn!

James is the biggest boy in Ireland! (lit. "It is James (who is) the boy (who) is biggest in Ireland")

Used to introduce the comparative/superlative form of adjectives


te

Cognate with Latvian te. The interjection is identical to Ancient Greek τῆ (tê, “here!, take this!”), which Beekes derives from Proto-Indo-European *teh₁, the instrumental neuter singular form of *tód. Compare Gothic 𐌱𐌹𐌸𐌴 (biþē, “while”), 𐌳𐌿𐌸𐌴 (duþē, “therefore”), Tocharian A ca-, Tocharian B ce (“demonstrative pronoun”) < *tē, and possibly Old Armenian թէ (tʻē, “that”).

cog

Šì naktìs tè niẽkad nesibaĩgia.

(with third person) may, let (used to indicate the optative mood)


de

A ma i wele. A ye ne de wele

He didn't call you. It was me that called

emphatic particle (placed directly after the word it modifies)


de

Im de kom.

Torkl de swim.

Pikni dem de nyam di fuud.

present progressive tense marker used before verbs


ten

Ten a'é.

I am firm. (literally, “I make a "ten" sound.”)

Ten aîmo'e.

I firm it up. (literally, “I make it make a "ten" sound.”)

(used with the verb e) to be firm, fixed, or snug (literally, “to make a "ten" sound”)


ten

Inherited from Old Polish ten. Cognate with Russian тот (tot), Lithuanian tas, Ancient Greek ὁ (ho, “the”), German der (“the”), English the.

A no, ten...


dar

head

dar (before a vowel in the present/future darb, before a vowel in the past/conditional darbh)

in the present (before-vowel)
future darb (before-vowel)
in the past (before-vowel)
conditional darbh (before-vowel)
in the past (triggers-lenition)
conditional (triggers-lenition)

Fusion of do (“to, for”) or de (“from”) with the copular particle ar.

an fear dar miste é

an fear dar mhiste é


in

Unknown. Probably related to Middle Welsh a (interrogative particle). The n may be from Proto-Celtic *ne (compare Latin -ne (interrogative particle) < nē (“not”)). Has been compared to Latin an (“or, whether”, interrogative particle).

m+

interrogative particle forming yes-no questions


in

Probably originally the masculine/neuter dative singular of the definite article (see Etymology 1); compare Middle Welsh and Welsh yn.

Amal nád n-airigther ⁊ nád fintar a ndu·gníther hi suidi, sic ba in ḟortgidiu ⁊ ba hi temul du·gníth Saul cona muntair intleda ⁊ erelca fri Dauid.

As what is done in this is not perceived and discovered, so it was covertly and it was in darkness that Saul with his people was making snares and ambushes against David.

Used with the masculine/neuter dative singular of an adjective to form the corresponding adverb: -ly


yeah

Colloquial form of yea or yes. Compare nah.

Do you wanna get pizza for dinner?
Yeah, I think I'm gonna eat some leftovers.

(colloquial) Used to express acknowledgment of what was previously said.


of

勇者オブ勇者の○○さん

キモいofキモい

(informal) Used to express that one is an exemplar.


of

Unclear, but totally overtook the function of g-, inherited from Proto-Germanic *ga-.

of + barmr (“bosom”) + -i (“agent suffix”) → of barmi (“brother”, literally “of the same bosom; co-bosomer”)

(archaic, poetic) Indicates association or togetherness; co-.

[…] Ok sikling / svigðis geira

c. 850, Þjóðólfr of Hvinir, Ynglingatal, verse 1]

[…] And the windless wave of the spears of the bull [HORNS > MEAD] was to destroy the prince.

(archaic, poetic) Indicates completeness or wholeness. In verbs, also indicates perfectivity (a finished action).


know

Make sure you water the plants, know…

(Singlish) Used at the end of a sentence to draw attention to information the speaker thinks the listener should keep in mind.


i

Separates the subject of a sentence from the predicate, used when the subject is a pronoun or a noun


i

Ay Jan cata non te enfermes, nen sentencies con malicia, cata que a yalma perdes.

1594, anonymous author, Entremés dos pastores:

Oh, Xan, watch out, don't get sick, nor sentence with meanness, watch out that your soul you're loosing

an antihiatical particle that, due to sandhi, can precede a word which begins with a vowel sound after a word which ends with vowel sound; now rarely represented in written language


i

Ua ʻai ka pōpoki i ka ʻiole.

used to mark the following (noun or noun phrase) as a direct object

I hana au.

used to indicate past tense (precedes verb)

i haʻalele

used to indicate perfect participle (precedes verb)


i

Mut, miä läkkään i viroks.

Mäni da i heittiis makkaamaa, ja makkais taas hoomuksee nasse.

1885, “Sprachproben: Der goldene Vogel”, in Volmari Porkka, editor, Ueber den Ingrischen Dialekt mit Berücksichtigung der übrigen finnisch-ingermanländischen Dialekte:

He went and threw himself to sleep, too, and he slept up till the morning again.

Iƶorat laatiit kansan, kumpa keelen poolest kuuluu läns-fenniläisiin kansoin gruppaa ja sil viisii i iƶoroin keeli kuuluu läns-fenniläisee keelisisteemaa.

1936, V. I. Junus, Iƶoran Keelen Grammatikka, Leningrad: Riikin Ucebno-pedagogiceskoi Izdateljstva, page 3:

The Ingrians make up a people, that based on their language belongs to the group of Finnic peoples and as such the language of Ingrians also belongs to the Finnic language family.


i

Shortened from Proto-Balto-Slavic *ir, from Proto-Indo-European *h₂r̥- (“thus”), preserved as such in Latvian ir and Lithuanian ir. Not related to Proto-Slavic *i and its descendants.


i

particle indicating the direct object of a transitive sentence


i

relational particle
relational particle#English

relational particle that marks the object of a verb


i

Tasol graun i no bin i stap olsem yumi save lukim nau.

1989, Buk Baibel long Tok Pisin, Port Moresby: Bible Society of Papua New Guinea, Jenesis 1:2:

Separates the subject of a sentence from the predicate, used when the subject is a pronoun, or a noun


i

Used to express the progressive tense in negative constructions.


one

Analogous to several senses of Hokkien ê and Mandarin 的 (de, declarative particle, nominalizer, etc.). This semantic loan might have stemmed from the apparent similarity between one as a prop-word and 的/-ê as a nominalizer (e.g. 青色的 (“the green one”)). Compare Cantonese 嘅 (ge³).

sl

see for numerical forms in other scripts

Got almonds one. ― There are almonds in it.

How come so heavy one ah? ― Why is it so heavy?

Can easily get lost one, know? ― You can easily get lost here/there.

'My boyfriends very possessive one. They don't allow me to wear clothes I want, do things I want,' she laments.

2000 February 14, Patricia Mok, The Straits Times (Life! section), Singapore: Singapore Press Holdings, →OCLC, page 5:

Why so special one?

2004, Ethical Egoist, soc.culture.singapore (Usenet):

Used at the end of a sentence to highlight the characteristics of someone or something.

My friend send one. ― It was sent by my friend.

Who say one? ― Who said so?

He ask one, not I ask one. ― It wasn’t me who asked, it was him.

ooooooooooar! you own self admit one har! i never say one har!

2011, Singrish King, soc.culture.singapore (Usenet):

Used at the end of a sentence to highlight the originator of something.

The sell fruits one go home already. ― The fruit seller went home.

A nominalizer used to form a noun phrase without a head noun.


o

I lift my soule to thee o Lord
mee, o Iehovah, heare
In thee, o Lord, I put my trust

2007, The Bay Psalm Book, Cosimo Classics, published 1640, p.37, 41 & 46:

(nonstandard) alternative form of O (vocative particle)


o

O malet e Shqipërisë!


o

For quotations using this term, see Citations:o.

(higher register or humorous) Vocative particle.


o

Palako nayu o.

Makanini namu o.

Nanu o.

(colloquial) sentence-ending particle used to express warning or to catch someone's attention; see also oy, uy and ay

Juan o lawen me.

Ginu o sana iligtas yu.

Mina o aini na.

(colloquial) used as a vocative particle to address the topic in question


o

In 1979 a gathering of elders at the Waananga kaumatua affirmed te reo Maori “Ko te reo te mauri o te mana Maori” the language is the life principle of Maori mana.

2006, Joanne Barker, Sovereignty Matters, page 208:


o

Polynesians are thought to have arrived at Easter Island around AD 800. They called the island Rapa Nui, or more familiarly Te Pito o Te Henua, the Navel of the World.

2008, Sharon Chester, A wildlife guide to Chile, page 15:

possessive particle marking an inalienable possession; of


o

Compare Hokkien 乎 (hôⁿ / hô͘), English oh and Spanish oh.

Nandiyan na naman siya o.

Ganito kasi dapat 'yan o.

You're supposed to do it like this, you see?

(informal) sentence-ending particle used to express warning or to catch someone's attention.


o

O flens löfik!


o

not (placed before a verb to negate it, frequently used after personal pronouns)


en

Idt en sal nümant syn Erve vryg verkopenn dar ander lüde wat anne hebbet. he en segget den kop to varenn.

Nobody shall [not] sell his inheritance, to which other people have rights attached, freely, unless he tell this to the buyer beforehand...

not; negates a verb, usage is facultative if it leads to a double negative

Nobody shall sell his inheritance, to which other people have rights attached, freely, unless he tell this to the buyer beforehand...


it

it sevišķi

it nekas

it nekur

it nemaz

it kā

used to assign accentuation to expression


fuck

Flen flyys
Slate.com
University of Minnesota Press
fuck

From Middle English *fukken, probably of Germanic origin: either from Old English *fuccian or Old Norse *fukka, both from Proto-Germanic *fukkōną, from Proto-Indo-European *pewǵ- (“to strike, punch, stab”). Compare windfucker and its debated etymology.
Possibly attested in a 772 AD charter that mentions a place called Fuccerham, which may mean "ham (“home”) of the fucker" or "hamm (“pasture”) of the fucker"; a John le Fucker in a record from 1278 may just be a variant of Fulcher, like Fucher, Foker, etc. The earliest unambiguous use of the word in a clearly sexual context, in any stage of English, appears to be in court documents from Cheshire, England, which mention a man called "Roger Fuckebythenavele" (possibly tongue-in-cheek, or directly suggestive of a depraved sexual act) on December 8, 1310. It was first listed in a dictionary in 1598. Scots fuk/fuck is attested slightly earlier, probably reinforcing the Northern Germanic/Scandinavian origin theory. From 1500 onward, the word has been in continual use, superseding jape and sard and largely displacing swive.
A range of folk-etymological backronyms, such as "fornication under consent of the king" and "for unlawful carnal knowledge", are all demonstrably false.
Sense 10, from related sense feck.
See windfucker (regional synonym: fuckwind) for more.

der

People complainin' "Monday again"... course it's Monday; fuck you thought came after Sunday? Sunday Jr.?
What the fuck did you think came after Sunday?

Of course it's the mailman. Fuck you thought it was?
Who the fuck did you think it was?

(vulgar, slang, especially African-American Vernacular) Used as a shortened form of various common interrogative phrases.

take a flying fuck at a rolling doughnut

the fucking you get isn't worth the fucking you get


fuck

Fuck jeres utopi. / Fuck jeres reservepræster, selvudnævnte biskopper uden liturgi.

2017, Peder Frederik Jensen, Skullfucking, Rosinante & Co, →ISBN:

Fuck your utopia / Fuck your reserve priests, self-proclaimed bishops without liturgy.

Fuck jer! Fuck jer! Og fuck jeres Gud!

2011, Lyngby Bibliotek, Oprør, BoD – Books on Demand, →ISBN, page 69:

(swear word) Expresses dislike of the postpositive complement.


mi

ᨆᨗ: which means only, e.g. ᨉᨘᨕᨆᨗ /duaːmi/ means only two.


mi

Bugün okula gittin mi?

Evli misin?


mi

head

mi (triggers soft mutation on the following verb)

mi (mutation mutation-radical)
fi (mutation mutation-soft)

From Proto-Brythonic *mi, from Proto-Celtic *mī.

Mi werthes i hanner dwsin.

(North Wales) used with inflected verbs to mark affirmative statements.


for

From Middle English for, from Old English for (“for, because of”), from Proto-Germanic *furi (“for”), from Proto-Indo-European *preh₂-.
Cognate with West Frisian foar (“for”), Dutch voor (“for”), German für (“for”), Danish for (“for”), Swedish för (“for”), Norwegian for (“for”), Icelandic fyrir (“for”), Latin per (“by, through, for, by means of”) and Romance language successors (e.g. Spanish para (“for”)), Ancient Greek περί (perí, “for, about, toward”), Lithuanian per (“by, through, during”), Sanskrit परि (pári, “over, around”).

cog

“'Ugh—I'll not be able for get up. Send for M'sieu le Curé—I'll be goin' for die for sure.'

[It was a] firs rate place for shoot a woodcocks, I tell you. [...] I say [it] wass no use for spen money. [...] An I say in "So wass I. I see lot of sy-pokes fly up an twist off like screw-cork an spit whistle, but I wass'nt able for get aim on him."

1898 December 17, “Mr. Owens' Experience”, in Forest and Stream, volume 51, page 485:

"She say that when nigger people step out o' they place and start for rub shoulders with Bacra, trouble just 'round the corner."

2007, H. Nigel Thomas, Return to Arcadia: A Novel (Tsar Publications)

(nonstandard, in representations of dialectal speech, especially that of black speakers) To, the particle for marking the following verb as an infinitive.


non

Min non mi yiɗaa ɗun!

a particle of insistance which can be added to a conjunction, interjection or pronoun


non

Aromanian: nu

Asturian: nun, ñun

Dalmatian: na

Friulian: no

Italian: no, non

Ladino: non (נון)

Lombard: nò

Mirandese: nun

Mozarabic: نن (nn), נון (nwn)

Old French: non, ne

French: non, ne

Old Occitan: non

Catalan: no

Occitan: non

Old Galician-Portuguese: nom

Galician: non

Portuguese: não

Romanian: nu

Romansch: na

Sardinian: no, non, nu

Sicilian: nun (used before a verb), no (used before a noun), nû (nun + lu/u)

Spanish: no, non

Uncertain. Maybe from Old Latin noenum, from Proto-Indo-European *ne (“not”) + *óynos (“one”). Equivalent to ne + ūnus. Alternatively from Proto-Indo-European *nó-h₁ ne (“not at all”) and cognate with the uncertain Gaulish nane (“not”) and Luwian [Term?] (/nā̆na/, “not”).

der

Lingua Graeca est; potest nōn legī.

Sit ut est, aut nōn sit.

Let it be as it is, otherwise it would not be.

Lexikon der indogermanischen Partikeln und Pronominalstämme


pi

yupi (singular)
wepi (plural)
upi (singular)
ipi (plural)
lipi (singular)
yapi (plural)
kipi (singular)
vipi (plural)
ipi (singular)
zipi (plural)
papi (singular)
kupi (singular)
mupi (singular)

Anakaa nyumba ipi?

Suffix used as an alternative to gani to more specifically say "which" of a known noun class.


pi

Alteration of po with /i/ to sound cutesy. Originally a typographical error due to the closeness of the positions of the I and O keys in the keyboard.

Okey pi!


pi

really, indeed (used to emphasize questions and commands)


ass

Variant of arse; used chiefly in North America. Ultimately from Middle English ars, ers, from Old English ærs, ears, from Proto-West Germanic *ars, from Proto-Germanic *arsaz (compare Old High German ars (German Arsch), Old Norse ars, Old Frisian ers), from Proto-Indo-European *h₃érsos (compare Ancient Greek ὄρρος (órrhos)).
Etymological notes
Contrary to the widespread belief of this being a euphemism, it arose as a pronunciation spelling (of the older form arse still used in the UK, Australia, New Zealand, etc.) that shows the assimilation of /ɹ/ before coronal consonants (especially /s/), a phenomenon that has been present in nonstandard speech from the Middle English period onwards; this is distinct from the later phenomenon of non-rhoticity as /ɹ/ was lost before it could modify the preceding vowel. Other instances of this phenomenon (some of which retained both spellings with different meanings) include cuss from curse, gash from garsh, bass (“fish”) from barse, bust from burst, passel from parcel; see :Category:English terms with assimilation of historic /ɹ/ for a more extensive list.

That was one big ass fish!

That's an expensive ass car!

Synonym of -ass (used to intensify an adjective)


ag

From Middle Irish oc, ac, ic, from Old Irish oc, occ. Compare Scottish Gaelic aig.

ag siúl

ag gáire

ag ithe

ag ól

particle used with the verbal noun to mark the progressive aspect:


ag

Topẽ vỹ ẽprã ke ag to há nĩ.


ag

Bha Seumas ag obair.

Used before the verbal noun to form the present participle.


om

From Old Norse um, from Proto-Germanic *umbi, from Proto-Indo-European *h₂m̥bʰi.
* As a conjunction, um superseded or blended with Old Norse ef and em, taking on their function as well. This is from Proto-Germanic *jabai (“when, if”), whence also English if and German ob.

Hon målade om huset

Sara blev tvungen att göra om läxorna

Specifies that a verb is done again; compare English re-.


yes

From Middle English yes, from Old English ġīese (“by all means, of course, yes”), derived from the same root as yea.

ааи

word used to indicate agreement or acceptance

အေး

among equals or to people of lower status

(not used, affirmative form of the verb is used instead)

seadh

much more limited than English usage; used as general acknowledgement of an utterance

có (in response to a question containing có)

phải

in response to a question containing (có) phải

được (in response to a question containing được không)

rồi (in response to a question containing chưa)

Yes, you are correct.

Yes, you may go play outside now.

Yes, sir, we have your package right here.

Hi, Jonathan. Are you busy? — Yes, I’m busy.
Audio (US): (file)

2016, VOA Learning English (public domain)

It was not my fault we lost the race.
Oh, yes, it was!

Used to indicate disagreement or dissent in reply to a negative statement.

بَلَى

word used to indicate disagreement or dissent in reply to a negative statement

có chứ (in response to a statement containing không có)

được chứ (in response to a statement containing không được)

Do you like cake, or pie?
Yes.

(humorous) Answer to a question presuming one answer when all answers are correct.


yes

yes (word used to show agreement or acceptance)


bai

Bihain God i tok olsem, “Nau yumi wokim ol manmeri bai ol i kamap olsem yumi yet. Bai yumi putim ol i stap bos bilong ol pis na ol pisin na bilong olgeta kain animal na bilong olgeta samting bilong graun.”

1989, Buk Baibel long Tok Pisin, Port Moresby: Bible Society of Papua New Guinea, Jenesis 1:26:

Then God said, "Now let us make people who will become like us. We'll put them in charge of the fish and the birds, of all kinds of animals and of all things on the ground."

will; to be going (to do something); marks future tense.

Mi laik bai yu stap bel isi.

Na ol i save askim mi long mekim stretpela pasin long ol na stap klostu long ol, bai em i ken amamas.

And they always ask me to treat them justly and stay close to them so that they may feel secure.

so that; to; introducing purposive clauses with a different subject from the matrix clause.


góra

Inherited from Old Polish góra. Sense 5 is preserved in terms such as górnik and was displaced by kopalnia.

Skończę za dwa, góra trzy dni.


ai

From Proto-Polynesian *ai. Cognates include Hawaiian ai and Samoan ai.

Anaphoric particle used to refer to an adverbial clause; there, then


ai

May derive from a (interrogative particle) + yw (“is, are”) or from or via the synonymous ae.

com

Ai ef yw dy dad?

interrogative particle (used when a non-verbal element is fronted for emphasis)

Ni wn ai ef yw dy dad.

I do not know whether he is your father.

whether, if (used when the subordinate clause has a non-verbal element fronted for emphasis)


bee

iggey yimbe bee bonnii taariinde nde no feewi.


punya

Inherited from Malay punya. Semantic loan from Hokkien 的 (ê).

gua punya ruma.


punya

Ambonese Malay: pung

North Moluccan Malay: pi

Kupang Malay: pung

Manado Malay: pe

Papuan Malay: pu

Clipping of empunya, from Proto-Malayo-Polynesian *empu-ni-a, from Proto-Malayo-Polynesian *empu. Compare Tagalog impó (“grandmother”).
First attested in the Talang Tuo inscription, 684 AD, as Old Malay [script needed] (punyā) in the form [script needed] (punyāña).
In the sense of possessive/genitive particle, semantic loan from Hokkien 的 (ê).

Adam punya buku


at

From Old Norse at, cognate with Swedish att, Norwegian å. Originally the same word as the preposition Old Norse at (“at, to”), from Proto-Germanic *at, cognate with English at. Doublet of ad). In the West Germanic languages, a different preposition, *tō (“to”), serves as the infinitive marker, cf English to, German zu, Dutch te.

Det er menneskeligt at fejle.

to (infinitive-marker, obligatory when the infinitive functions as noun phrase or an adverbial phrase, but omitted when it is governed by a modal verb)

Mon de da ikke snart skulle til at hjemad!

1992, Thøger Birkeland, Bette Nielses krig:

introducing an adverb of direction after a phrase that normally governs an infinitive (which may be understood elliptically)


at

From Old Norse at (“at, to”), from Proto-Germanic *at (“at, to”). More at at.

At lyfta.

to A particle used to mark the following verb as an infinitive.


at

(Northern, northern East Midlands) to (infinitive-marker)


at

Icelandic: að

Faroese: at

Norwegian:

Norwegian Bokmål: å

Norwegian Nynorsk: å

Swedish: att

Danish: at

From Proto-Germanic *at (“at, to”). Cognate with Old English æt, Old Frisian et, Old Saxon at, Old High German az, Gothic 𐌰𐍄 (at).


to

From Middle English to, from Old English tō, from Proto-Germanic *tō ~ *ta, from Proto-Indo-European *de ~ *do (“to”). Cognate with Scots tae, to (“to”), North Frisian to, tö, tu (“to”), Saterland Frisian tou (“to”), Low German to (“to”), Dutch toe (“to”), German zu (“to”), West Frisian ta (“to”). Non-Germanic cognates include Albanian ndaj (“towards”), Irish do (“to, for”), Breton da (“to, for”), Welsh i (“to, for”), Russian до (do, “to”). Doublet of too.

I want to leave.

He asked me what to do.

I have places to go and people to see.

To err is human.

Who am I to criticise? I've done worse things myself.

To err, is human; to forgive, divine.

1711 May, [Alexander Pope], An Essay on Criticism, London: […] W[illiam] Lewis […]; and sold by W[illiam] Taylor […], T[homas] Osborn[e] […], and J[ohn] Graves […], →OCLC:

To be, or not to be: that is the question: / […]

c. 1599–1602 (date written), William Shakespeare, “The Tragedie of Hamlet, Prince of Denmarke”, in Mr. William Shakespeares Comedies, Histories, & Tragedies […] (First Folio), London: […] Isaac Iaggard, and Ed[ward] Blount, published 1623, →OCLC, [Act III, scene i]:

Odds are, BP to get new CEO this year

2010 July, “Archived copy”, in Associated Press, archived from the original on 2010-07-05, headline:

To that end, the home supporters were in good voice to begin with, but it was Newcastle who started the game in the ascendancy, with Barton putting a diving header over the top from Jose Enrique's cross.

2011 April 10, Alistair Magowan, “Aston Villa 1 - 0 Newcastle”, in BBC Sport:

A particle used for marking the following verb as an infinitive.

the first infinitive of all verbs ends with -a or -ä

"Did you visit the museum?" "I wanted to, but it was closed."

If he hasn't read it yet, he ought to.

You are to go to the store and buy a bottle of milk.

Used to indicate an obligation on the part of, or a directive given to, the subject.

I went to the shops to buy some bread.

-akse- (translative of first infinitive with possessive suffix)


to

I am to so bored right now.

(mild intensifier, colloquial, chiefly North India) a filler word common amongst urban Indians.


to

Nyɛ́ tò hàn jì / Yẹ́n tò hàn jì

A present progressive or habitual tense marker, only used before nouns.


to

English: to

Scots: tae

From Old English tō, ta, te, from Proto-Germanic *tō, *ta.


to

Inherited from Proto-Slavic *to. First attested in the 14th century.


to

Inherited from Old Polish to. Cognate with Czech to, Russian то (to), Ancient Greek τό (tó), German das, dass, English that.

Parę razy mi się udało. Z jedną to nawet bardzo.

I have succeeded a couple of times. With one it was even very successful.

used to indicate what one is talking about

W tych ścianach to ona była królową i musiała mieć królewskie wejście.

Within these walls, it was her who was the queen and had to have a royal entrance.

used to indicate what can be said about the topic, in contrast to all that cannot be said about it

No to kiedy zaczynamy?

OK, to do zobaczenia.

so (used after a pause for thought to introduce a new topic, question, or story, or a new thought or question in continuation of an existing topic)

Od kiedy to morderstwo jest takim ewenementem?

Komu to przypadło dzisiaj kucharzowanie?

used to indicate that the topic in the relevant question refers to a known set of elements from which a choice has to be made

A to zdolniacha z wuja!

No, tośmy wczoraj mieli niezły bal!

used to express surprise that something is indeed like that as the speaker did not think it could really be so

O Czechosłowacji po roku 1968 dochodziły do nas ponure wiadomości, dlatego to starałem się przejechać ten kraj jak najszybciej mimo zmęczenia.

There was grim news about Czechoslovakia after 1968, which is why I tried to cross the country as quickly as possible despite my fatigue.

(literary) used to indicate that the topic refers to a known object, mentioned in the preceding statement

Spróbuj zaakceptować jego wady. Nikt nie jest kryształowy. Pali to pali, widziały gały co brały.

Try to accept his flaws. No one is perfect. OK, he smokes, so what? Big deal, you should've thought about it earlier.

(colloquial) used to indicate that what someone has said about the topic is a fait accompli and should no longer be discussed


to

Northern Ryukyuan:

Kikai: と゚ぅ (θu)

Kunigami: とぅ (thu)

Northern Amami Ōshima: と゚ぅ (θu)

Okinawan: とぅ (tu)

Okinoerabu: とぅ (tu)

Southern Amami Ōshima: とぅ (tu)

Tokunoshima: とぅ (tu)

Yoron: とぅ (tu)

Southern Ryukyuan: *to (Bentley, 2008b)

Miyako: とぅ (tu)

Yaeyama: とぅ (tu)

Yonaguni: とぅ (tu)


al

Esan al diozu?


al

zaq al

Maq beq sso al


as

glic (“wise”) → as glice (“wisest”)

mòr (“big”) → as motha (“biggest”)

Creates the superlative when preceding the comparative form of an adjective or an adverb.


kara

Northern Ryukyuan:

Kikai: から (kara), ら (ra)

desc

Kunigami: から (khara), ちゃら (chara), ら (ra)

Northern Amami Ōshima: はら (hara), か゚ら (xara), から (kara)

Okinawan: から (kara)

Okinoerabu: から (kara)

Southern Amami Ōshima: はら (hara), か゚ら (xara), から (kara)

Tokunoshima: から (kara)

Yoron: から (kara), ちゃら (chara)

Southern Ryukyuan:

Miyako: から (kara)

Yaeyama: から (kara)

Yonaguni: がら (gara)

From Proto-Japonic *kara (“course, way”).


ia

From Proto-Polynesian *ia, from Proto-Oceanic *ia, from Proto-Eastern Malayo-Polynesian *ia, from Proto-Central-Eastern Malayo-Polynesian *ia, from Proto-Malayo-Polynesian *(si-)ia, from Proto-Austronesian *(si-)ia.


ia

Azinha vai casa-ia, logo cai chuva

Let's get home quickly, it's going to rain

Iou tâ vâi-ia!

Dessâ vai-ia!

Tâ fêde-ia

Pacência-iá.

Já têm-ia!

Más bôm trabalâ-ia manejante têm aqui!

We'd better get to work, the boss is here!


ia

From Proto-Polynesian *ia, from Proto-Oceanic *ia, from Proto-Eastern Malayo-Polynesian *ia, from Proto-Malayo-Polynesian *(si-)ia, from Proto-Austronesian *(si-)ia.

Precedes a name to mark it as a direct object


ia

From Proto-Polynesian *ia. Cognates include Maori ia and Samoan ia.


ia

From ie with the unstressed final vowel lowered from /ɛ/ to /a/, a feature of north-west Walian speech.

Fo ’di dy dad di? Ia, dyna fo.

Fo ’di dy dad, ia?
He’s your dad, is he?

(North Wales, colloquial) interrogative particle (used sentence-finally when a non-verbal element is fronted for emphasis)


ia

Proto-Nuclear Polynesian:

Proto-Eastern Polynesian:

Tahitic

Maori: ia

Samoic-Outlier

Samoic

Samoan: ia

Tokelauan: ia

Tongic

Tongan: ia

From Proto-Oceanic [Term?], from Proto-Malayo-Polynesian [Term?], from Proto-Austronesian *qia.


re

Heill mee dy re Manninagh oo.

Ta mee credjal dy re ayns y gharey hooar ad eh.

I think it was in the garden that they found it.


did

Im did wel rich. Nou im puo.

Saiman Piita did av wan breda niem Anju. Nou, Anju a did wan a Jan tuu falara dem we did fala Jiizas afta dem ier wa Jan did se bout im.

2012, Di Jamiekan Nyuu Testiment, Edinburgh: DJB, published 2012, →ISBN, Jan 1:40:

Simon Peter had a brother named Andrew. Andrew was one of John's two followers that followed Jesus after hearing what John said about him.


aku

soon, later, earlier, last (week, year, etc.)


man

Dai man iyan

used to abate or soften the impacts of negatives and commands


man

Inherited from Proto-Philippine *man. Compare Tagalog man.

Hain man si Pedro?
(Person 2): Tua man 'to siya sa Carcar
(Person 1): Where is Pedro?
(Person 2): He is/was there in Carcar

Hain man si Pedro?
(Person 2): Tua siya sa Carcar
(Person 3 responding to person 2): Tua man gud siya sa Cebu
(Person 1): Where is Pedro?
(Person 2): He is in Carcar
(Person 3): No, he's in Cebu

contradicts a previous statement or presumption; usually with the particle ugod/gud

Hain man si Pedro?


an

From Proto-Central Philippine *aŋ. Cognate with Cebuano ang, Hiligaynon ang, Tagalog ang, Waray-Waray an.
Further etymology is debated; some have theorized a relationship to Proto-Malayo-Polynesian *a (“direct marker”), from Proto-Austronesian *a (“direct marker”) with the addition of an unclear nasal suffix. Compare Kapampangan ing.

cog

Nagdalagan an lalaki pasiring sa baybayon.

Kinaon kan ikos an sira. (Legazpi)

direct marker for all general nouns other than personal proper nouns


an

An bhfuil tú ag éisteacht?

Níl a fhios agam an bhfuil sé anseo.

Used to form direct and indirect questions

ar

used with the past tense of regular and some irregular verbs


an

An maith leat bainne?

Níl a fhios agam an é Conchúr a chonaic mé.

used to introduce copular questions, both direct and indirect, in the present/future tense


an

an (mutation mutation-radical)
n-an (eclipsis mutation)
han (mutation prothesis-h)

Alternative form of a (used before numbers when counting)


an

From Old Irish in. Cognates include Irish an.

Used together with a dependent form of a verb to form the interrogative.


an

From Proto-Central Philippine *aŋ. Cognate with Cebuano ang, Hiligaynon ang, Tagalog ang, Bikol Central an.
Further etymology is debated; some have theorized a relationship to Proto-Malayo-Polynesian *a (“direct marker”), from Proto-Austronesian *a (“direct marker”) with the addition of an unclear nasal suffix. Compare Kapampangan ing.

Midalagan an lalaki paingon ha baybayon.

Gikaon han iring an isda.


god

Inherited from Proto-Slavic *godъ, from Proto-Balto-Slavic *gadás, from Proto-Indo-European *gʰedʰ-. Cognate with Slovene god, Old Church Slavonic годъ (godŭ), Russian год (god).

(t)ko god

što god

gdje god

koji god

Uzmi koji god hoćeš!

kad god

čiji god

kako god

kakav god

koliki god

koliko god


ke

Possibly related to the intensifying suffix -k(ä).


ke

Ìghọn ọlọ́ṣà kè gbe arù rẹ̀ rè


so

From Middle High German sō, from Old High German sō, from Proto-West Germanic *swā, from Proto-Germanic *swa, *swē, compare with Old Dutch so and Dutch zo.

Ich so: "Mach mal dalli!", und er dann so: "Ich bin ja schon dabei!"

I was like, "Hurry up!" and he was like, "I'm already on it!"

Ich dachte mir nur so: "Ja komm, lass stecken."

All I thought to myself [at that moment] was, "Yeah whatever, forget about it."

Und er so wie aus heiterem Himmel so: Momentchen, da läuft doch Hip-Hop!
Und ich so: Ja, das ist richtig!
Und er so: Biste auch Rapper?
Und ich so: Ja, so Hobby
Und der Typ so original so: Oh welch ein Zufall, das bin ich nämlich auch!

1998, “Ich so, Er so”, Dendemann (lyrics), performed by Eins Zwo:

Besonders überzeugt hatte mich dieser Moment meines Dates: „Ich habe gesagt: Ich weiß nicht, ob ich mich gerade bereit für Sex fühle. Da lag ich schon halb nackt in seinem Bett. Und er so: Cool, dann können wir ja einfach knutschen und kuscheln!“

2022 May 16, Lou Zucker, “Erwartungen beim Dating: Mehr als das Minimum”, in Die Tageszeitung: taz, →ISSN:

(colloquial) quotative particle, somewhat similar to be like but also combinable with other verbs


so

yaso

deso


she

From Old Irish is ed (“it is so”). Compare Irish sea, Scottish Gaelic seadh.

She ynseyder eh Juan.

John is a teacher. (definition: predicate is indefinite)

She Juan yn ynseyder.

John is the teacher. (identification: predicate is definite)

She mish honnick eh.

She Juan ta ny ynseyder.

It's John who is a teacher. (cleft sentence)


tak

Tak manchal! Nadai ulih rara
He is extremely mischievous! Cannot be deterred

expressing the seriousness or strength of words, the most extreme or severe

Tak singin ati aku ka muai iya ke lubuk.

I really wanted to throw him into the pool.

frighten or scare, but not done out of anger


tak

particle used to reinforce or emphasize a certain word or idea, usually by reducing doubts about it; but... (really), in fact, surely, just


tak

Inherited from Old Polish tak. The “yes” sense is an ellipsis of tak jest; compare Italian sì.


he

Mázaškaŋškaŋ tóna he?

question-marking particle used by females in formal speech


し

1937, Yumeno Kyūsaku, Osoroshii Tōkyō [Terrifying Tokyo]:

What I could see looked like a department store, I had no idea where tickets were being sold, and there wasn't anything like a platform. Wondering if I haven't come to the wrong place I once again walked up the stone stairs and a bustling street I wasn't familiar with filled my vision.

見渡す限り百貨店みたいで、何処で切符を売っているのかわからないし、プラットフォームらしいものもないので、間違ったのかなと思って又石段を上って見ると、丸キリ知らない繁華な町である。

Miwatasu kagiri hyakkaten mitai de, doko de kippu o utteiru no ka wakaranai shi, purattofōmu rashii mono mo nai no de, machigatta no ka na to omotte mata ishidan o nobottemiruto, marukiri shiranai hanka na machi de aru.

K-On!
「でもでも、私運動音痴だし、文化系のクラブもよくわからないし…」
“Demo demo, watashi undō onchi da shi, bunkakei no kurabu mo yoku wakaranai shi…”
"But—but I'm terrible at sports and I don't really know anything about the cultural clubs…"

conjunctive particle, separates items in a list of reasons

てかなんでやったし。

sentence-ending particle, indicating mild emphasis, and alluding to an inferable but deliberately omitted conclusion


ba

Ba al zatoz?

Ba ote al dago inor etxean?

Ba omen zegoen bidea ezagutzen zuen norbait.


ba

Ez nizun ba esan.


ba

Kini ba ang Kabisay-an?

Kamao ka ba molangoy?


ba

Si himo ka suudu ba, si o alaa ton ba.

Whether he's at the house, or whether he's not there.


ba

Ba myə gaə̂ sɔ'.


ba

ba (mutation mutation-radical)
bha (lenition mutation)
mba (eclipsis mutation)

b’

used before a vowel sound except for the pronouns é, í, iad, ea

Ba é Dónall an múinteoir.

Ba mhaith liom cupán tae.

fear ba shine ná m'athair

past/conditional direct relative of is (used to introduce the comparative/superlative form of adjectives)


ba

Polish: ba

Silesian: ba

Inherited from Proto-Slavic *ba. First attested in the 15th century.

A ci... mąk nie wierzyli ani czci, ani dostojeństwa, ba i wstania przychodzącego sądu przeli (nam et resurrectionem mortuorum futuram negabant), mnimając, aby dusze po społu s ciały umirały

Middle of the 15th century, Rozmyślanie o żywocie Pana Jezusa, page 181:

nay, or rather, or should I say, moreover, hell used to say that what has been said thus far is true, but could be said more accurately

Drugi potem przybieżąc uderzył ji w ciemię i rzekł: O Jesusie, snadź ci mirzka w [o]czu, ba pokrzep sie im, dobry druże; takeś omdlał, jakoby nie miał boga ojca, ba pochwaci sie, ale nie daj sie sromocić

Middle of the 15th century, Rozmyślanie o żywocie Pana Jezusa, page 731:


ba

head

ba (discourse, Perso-Arabic spelling بہ)

Marker with a (switch-)topic function (variously corresponding to 'and, however, instead, as for, but')


ba

To danie jest dobre, ba, przepyszne!

nay, or rather, or should I say, moreover, hell (used to say that what has been said thus far is true but could be said more accurately)

„On jest trochę głupi, co?” „Ba!”

duh, obviously (used when the speaker believes what has been said is obvious)

(Masuria, Ostróda, Warmia) Introduces a continued statement; well, so

(Masuria, Ostróda, Warmia) Used to answer a question; well

(Masuria, Ostróda, Warmia) Used to respond to a request; unfortunately

(Masuria, Ostróda, Warmia) Adds to a statement furthermore


ba

Expresses negation or disagreement; obviously not


ba

From Proto-Malayo-Polynesian *ba, or shortened form of baga. Cognate with Cebuano ba and Malagasy va.

Mayroon ka bang pera?


ba

East Slavic:

Russian: ба (ba) (rare)

Ukrainian: ба (ba, “wow!”)

South Slavic:

Bulgarian: ба (ba) (rare)

Macedonian: ба (ba) (rare, dialectal)

Serbo-Croatian:

Cyrillic script: ба̏ (“wow!”)

Latin script: bȁ (“wow!”)

West Slavic:

Czech: ba

Old Polish: ba

Polish: ba

Slovak: ba

Sorbian

Lower Sorbian: ba

Likely from Proto-Indo-European *bʰeh₂ (affirmative adverb), cognate with Ancient Greek φή (phḗ, “like, as”), Avestan 𐬠𐬁 (bā, “indeed”).

der

yes, yeah (a term used to indicate general agreement)

→ wow, really (interjection expressing surprise, astonishment)


bet

From bè (“without”) + a particle -t of indeterminate origin. This particle may come from tè (“let, may it be”); compare nèt (“even”) < nete. Cognate with Latvian bet.

bet kadà

Jaučiúosi geriaũ neĩ bet kadà!

(in conjunction with interrogative words) any-, -ever (suggesting the complement is not important or irrelevant)


me

Cognate with Hawaiian me (“with”) and Samoan ma (“and, with”).

Conjunctive
and (joins two noun phrases)

with (indicates people or things present when an event occurs)

must, should (used before verbs to form a weak command)

Me whā rawa?

must be (used before nouns and adjectives)

how should it be done (used before pēhea and a clause)

Comparative
if only (reverses what is stated)


me

Pronunciation spelling
pronunciation spelling


pin

Wapin.

Istu yapin.

Ikapin.


er

From Proto-Indo-European *h₂er-/*h₂r̥-. Cognate with Lithuanian ar̃ (“also, if”), Latvian ar (“also”), Ancient Greek ἄρ (ár, “hence, as well as”).


what

wot (all only in British, Australian, New Zealand, New York City accents with the wine–whine merger)

From Middle English what, from Old English hwæt (“what”), from Proto-West Germanic *hwat, from Proto-Germanic *hwat (“what”), from Proto-Indo-European *kʷód (“what”), neuter form of *kʷós (“who”). Cognate with Scots whit (“what”), North Frisian wat (“what”), Saterland Frisian wat (“what”), West Frisian wat (“what”), Dutch wat (“what”), Low German wat (“what”), German was (“what”), Danish hvad (“what”), Norwegian Bokmål hva (“what”), Swedish vad (“what”), Norwegian Nynorsk kva (“what”), Icelandic hvað (“what”), Latin quod (“what, which”).

— Sian sia, nearby here don’t have library.
— The National Library is a five-minute walk from here what, no meh?

Most things come from Europe what.

1978, L. C. Cheong, Youth in the Army, page 142:

[…] they can't be the same what?

2007, yansimon52, soc.culture.singapore (Usenet):

(Manglish, Singlish) Emphasizes the truth of an assertion made to contradict an evidently false assumption held by the listener.

it doesn't matter what they say about you as long as they spell your name right

never put off until tomorrow what you can do today

the left hand doesn't know what the right hand is doing

throw things at the wall and see what sticks

what doesn't kill you makes you stronger

what does that have to do with the price of corn

what does that have to do with the price of fish

what does that have to do with the price of tea in China

what happens on the road stays on the road

what you gain on the swings you lose on the roundabouts

what you lose on the swings you gain on the roundabouts

who are you and what have you done with someone

you never know what you've got till it's gone


do

From confusion between Middle Irish ro- (in perfect), no- (in imperfect and conditional), and do- (of many verbs with that preverb), from Old Irish ro-, no-, to- respectively.

do mhol sé

(Munster, literary) prefixed before the preterite, imperfect and conditional forms of a verb


do

Reanalysis of do (“past tense marker”) and the early modern unstressed preverb do- of verbs like do-gheibhim (“I get”), do-chím (“I see”) (and possibly also a- in a-tú (“I am”), a-deirim (“I say”)) in relative clauses as a relative marker.

an cailín do mholann sé

(Munster, literary) relative marker (in direct relative clauses)


do

From Middle Irish ro-, from Old Irish ro-, from Proto-Celtic *ɸro-.

An do sgrìobh thu litir?

Cha do bhrist mi an uinneag.


もん

Changed from 物(もの) (mono); became common in the Kantō dialects from the late Edo period.


乙

本國乙背叛

1395, 高士褧 (Go Sa-gyeong), 金祗 (Kim Ji), 大明律直解 (Daemyeongnyul Jikhae) [Correct Translation of the Great Ming Code]:

idu form of ᄋᆞᆯ (accusative case marker)


乙

desc

Middle Korean: ᄋᆞᆯ/을 (-(o/u)l, accusative marker)

Korean: 을 (-eul, accusative case marker)

主乙完乎白乎心聞

1120, King Yejong of Goryeo, “悼二將歌 (Doijang-ga)”, in 平山申氏系譜 (Pyeongsan Sin-ssi Gyebo) [Genealogy of the Pyeongsan Sin descent group]:


ir

From Proto-Baltic *ir, from the reduced grade *h₂r̥ of Proto-Indo-European *h₂er- (“so, then; question particle”) (whence also Latvian ar (“with”); see there for more). The original meaning “and” (compare Lithuanian cognate) is found in 16th- and 17th-century texts, but from the 18th century on ir was no longer used in this sense. Cognates include Lithuanian ir̃ (“and”), Old Prussian ir (“also”), er (“(along) with”), Ancient Greek ἄρα, ἄρ', ῥά (ára, ár', rhá, “so, then, therefore”).

cog

ἄρα, ἄρ', ῥά

Ludis nolēca lielā dubļu pančkā un tur ir palika, ratiem pakaļ skatīdamies

Ludis jumped into a big mud puddle and there also he stayed, looking ahead at the cart

Dūdums pateica: “man vēl laika diezgan”, un pārliecināt viņu par piegādes normu nodošanu pirms termiņa tā ir neizdevās — Dūdums said: “I still have enough time,” and also, so it was impossible to convince him about the rules for delivery before the deadline

used to mark connection and emphasis, reinforcement; syn. arī

tas viņam ir prātā nenāk

krūmos ir pa naktīm guļot, pilsētā viņš parādoties reti

really sleeping at night in the bushes, he appeared rarely in the city

used to mark emphasis, to reinforce; syn. pat: really, even


ir

From Proto-Balto-Slavic *ir (“and, also”), compare Latvian ir, Old Prussian ir (“and, even”), from Proto-Indo-European *h₂r̥- (“thus, so”); compare Ancient Greek ἄρα (ára, “so, then, consequently”). If the original meaning was "fittingly, accordingly", the root may be identical to *h₂er- (“fit together”), see artì (“near”) for more.
Proto-Slavic *i (“and, even”) is probably not related.

Mán ir̃ tõ nepavỹko padarýt!

Jìs ir̃ yrà tàs žmogùs, apiẽ kùrį kal̃bame.

Nà, ir̃ kàs!


かい

元気かい？

本当に出来るのかい？

rhetorical question
rhetorical question#English

(familiar, men's speech) Marks a non-rhetorical question.

For a list of all kanji read as かい

This term, かい (kai), is the hiragana spelling of the above term.


けん

/kemu/ → /kem/ → /ken/
Shift from older けむ (kemu, auxiliary suffix for verbs indicating supposition about the past, including supposition about why something may have happened). This phonological shift was apparently already underway during the Heian period (794–1185).

ja-r

じゃが今は内地も不景気でがして、屑屋も駄目じゃけん、内地さ行くなああきらめるがええ

Jaga ima wa naichi mo fukeiki de gashite, kuzuya mo dame ja ken, naichi sa iku nā akirameru ga ee

However the mainland economy is also in a recession now and waste collection business does not pay, so you should give up to go to the mainland.

(Chūgoku, Shikoku, Kyūshū) because, since, so: presents the preceding clause as the reason for the following clause


も

⟨mo₂⟩ → */mə/ → /mo/
From Old Japanese, from Proto-Japonic *mə.

田中さんはビールを飲んでいる。スミスさんも飲んでいる。

Tanaka-san wa bīru o nondeiru. Sumisu-san mo nondeiru.

Tanaka is drinking beer. Smith is also drinking.

本日もご来店くださいまして、ありがとうございます。

Honjitsu mo go-raiten kudasaimashite, arigatō gozaimasu.

Thank you for visiting our store today as well [as other days].

私にもくれた。

(non-unique topic marker)
too; also; as well

夢にも思いませんでした。

I have never thought of this even in my dreams.

500 円もあれば買える。

I can buy this even if I have only 500 yen.

猿も木から落ちる

Even experts occasionally make mistakes.

誰も知っていることだ。

箱の中には何もなかった。

Inside the box, all things do not exist.

(attaching to an indefinite pronoun or determiner) all; every

non-unique topic marker; attaching to an indefinite pronoun or determiner; attaching to an indefinite pronoun or determiner

何万人も来た。

2GBもある

(non-unique topic marker)
Used to emphasize amounts.


も

Japanese: も (mo)

Jōdai Tokushu Kanazukai
Kojiki
Man'yōgana
Nihon Shoki

From Proto-Japonic *mə.
Appears in common use in the Kojiki (712 CE), with the only attested distinction between ⟨mo₁⟩ and ⟨mo₂⟩. Compare Middle Chinese 母 (MC muwX).
Pronunciation was distinct from ⟨mo₁⟩ terms such as 雲 (kumo₁, “cloud”) and 下 (simo₁, “lower, end”); pronounced closely to Middle Chinese 毛 (MC maw|mawH). This was lost in a later ancient Japanese chronicle, the Nihon Shoki (720 CE), and ⟨mo₁⟩ and ⟨mo₂⟩ were merged to form one syllable mo. See the Man'yōgana and Jōdai Tokushu Kanazukai articles for more detail on ancient spellings.


chan

From Middle Irish nocon, nochon, from Old Irish nícon, nacon, from ní con.

Chan ólann sé.

Chan fhanann sé.

ní

used in Munster Irish, Connacht Irish, and some varieties of Ulster Irish


sin

Gbẹ̀tọ́ sín àfọ̀ / Gbɛ̀tɔ́ sín àfɔ̀

comes after a noun to indicate that this noun possesses that which follows, much like English 's


duke

from older ntuke from tu
Also used as tue in Gheg.

duke kënduar

A particle which precedes a participle to form a gerundive adverbial phrase.


de facto

Unadapted borrowing from Latin dē factō.


r

Possibly cognate to Hebrew אֶל (ʾel, “to, at”), Arabic إِلَى (ʔilā, “to, until, near”).

(with attached suffix pronoun) so, regarding (that, you, me, etc.), as for (that, you, me, etc.)


ano

From the phrase "to je ono" ("that is it"). Compare Slovak áno (“yes”), Polish ano (“yes, indeed”).


ano

(colloquial) emphatic particle used with imperatives


ano

Used to a previously mentioned situation; well, so


ano

Inherited from Proto-Philippine *qanú, from Proto-Malayo-Polynesian *anu, from Proto-Austronesian *(na-)nu.


ano

East Slavic:

Old East Slavic: ано (ano), анъ (anŭ)

Old Ruthenian: ано (ano)

Belarusian: ано́ (anó) (dialectal)

Ukrainian: а́но́ (ánó) (dialectal)

Russian: ан (an), а́но́ (ánó) (dialectal, archaic)

South Slavic:

Bulgarian: ано́ (anó)

Serbo-Croatian:

Cyrillic script: ано̑ (dialectal)

Latin script: anȏ (dialectal)

Slovene: àn; àno (dialectal)

West Slavic:

Old Czech: an m, ana f, ano n

Czech: ano

Old Polish: ano

Polish: ano

Slovak: áno; an, án (dialectal)


du

interrogative particle (placed at the end of the sentence to make a question)


刀

Middle Korean: 도〮 (-twó)

Korean: 도 (-do)

as well; too; either, or (negative) neither, nor


bi

head

bi (discourse, Perso-Arabic spelling بیۡ)


bi

Ẹ̀yin lọ bí?

question marker that can be used at the end of a yes-no question


bo

bom (combined-form object-first-person object-singular)
bośmy (combined-form object-first-person object-plural)
boś (combined-form object-second-person object-singular)
boście (combined-form object-plural object-second-person)
bo (combined-form object-singular object-third-person)
bo (combined-form object-plural object-third-person)

Ładna, bo ładna, ale głupia.

Well, she might be pretty, but she is also stupid.

Bo to prawda?

Bo ja wiem?

Nigdy o tym nie mówiłem, bo i po co?

I never talked about it because why would I?

emphasizes the statement, usually in phrases of opposite meanings, or introduces a rhetorical question, denying its literal meaning

Stary, bo stary, ale mocny.

He very well may be old, but he's still strong.

Trudno bo trudno, ale robi się łatwiej.

It may very well be hard, but it's getting easier.

(with ale) may very well, but, even though, despite


by

Inherited from Old Czech by, from Proto-Slavic *by.

Vstával by dřív, ale to by si napřed musel koupit budík.

He would be getting up earlier, but then he would have to buy an alarm clock first.

third-person singular conditional subjunctive of být; would

Byl by tam šel, kdyby mě byli pozvali.

I would have gone there if they had invited me.

My by tam šli, kdyby nás byli pozvali.

We would have gone there if they had invited us.


by

2002, https://tcrf.net/Super_Monkey_Ball_2#Test_Level_Messages
ココにはバッファから生成したMAPのTEXTURE希望 by JAMAD

"I want the texture of the MAP generated from the buffer here" — JAMAD

2007, 『さよなら絶望先生』 第5話
己を知らされば、戦う毎に必ず殆し。by 孫子

"If one is ignorant of oneself, one is bound to be in danger with every battle" — Sun Tzu

2009, 『けいおん！』 第4話
めざせ武道館！！ by 軽音部！

"Aim for the Budokan!" — Light Music Club

(informal) Used to sign off a message/attribute a text.


by

By vie lhiam goll myrgeddin.

B'laik lhiam briaght jiu c'red bare lhiu jannoo jiu.

I'd like to ask you what you'd prefer to do today.

yn dooinney by hroshey

(dated) Past and conditional form of s' (used to introduce the comparative and superlative form of adjectives)


by

Polish: by

Silesian: by

Inherited from Proto-Slavic *by. First attested in the 14th century.

Bosze moy, ne milczy ote mne, bi negdi ne milczal ote mne (deus meus, ne sileas a me, ne quando taceas a me)

1939 [end of the 14th century], Ryszard Ganszyniec, Witold Taszycki, Stefan Kubica, Ludwik Bernacki, editors, Psałterz florjański łacińsko-polsko-niemiecki [Sankt Florian Psalter], Krakow: Zakład Narodowy imienia Ossolińskich, z zasiłkiem Sejmu Śląskiego [The Ossoliński National Institute: with the benefit of the Silesian Parliament], pages 27, 1:

(attested in Lesser Poland) expresses optative meaning; if only, had better, let


by

On by tam nie poszedł./On nie poszedłby tam.

forms the conditional mood; would, would've


go

Short form of gon (“to, towards”). Particle served originally as a preposition (prespositions gon, gan still do). Cognate to (particle/preposition) Alemannic German ga, ge, gi, gu, etc. From Middle High German gon (gan, gen), from Old High German gagan, from Proto-Germanic *gagin. Cognate to German gen (“to, towards”), gegen (“against, towards”), Dutch tegen, English gain, gain-, again, against, Icelandic gegn.
Not to be confused with the verb go (“to go”) (gaa, goo, etc.).

I(ch) gang go (ga, ge, gi, gu) schaffe.

I(ch) gahn(e) go schaffe.

I(ch) gang go schlaaffe.

to (particle follows after verbs (such as go, come); placed before infinitive)


go

From Old Irish co, from Proto-Indo-European *ḱóm (“next to, at, with, along”). Cognate with German ge- (“with”) (collective prefix) and gegen (“toward, against”), English gain-, Spanish con (“with”), Russian ко (ko, “to”).

inh

D’ith sé go maith.

Shiúlaíodar go mall.

go feargach

Tá an t-anraith seo go maith.

Bhí a mac go hálainn.

Ní raibh an film go huafásach.

used to make predicative adjectives expressing an opinion or value judgment


go

Im no go dey dia

Nigeria go survive / Africa go survive / My people go survive o / Nigeria go survive

1985, Sonny Oti (lyrics and music), “Nigeria Go Survive”, performed by Veno:

Nigeria will survive / Africa will survive / My people will survive, yes / Nigeria will survive


go

Mii sa go ozhiitaawaad igo.


go

Used sentence-finally to express certainty or decisiveness.


㐌

Nôm form of đã (“already, past marker”).


w

(Old Egyptian) not; used to negate the subjunctive or prospective in wishes and commands


m

Possibly originally a verb form, an imperative meaning ‘see’.

(chiefly Old and Middle Egyptian, with a suffix pronoun) behold, lo, look

(without a suffix pronoun) whether, although


m

Standard spelling of ń (“imperfect aspect marker”) (used before verbs that start with a /b/ sound)


n

Marks the imperfective aspect, for actions that are not completed.

mí

Ìjẹ̀ṣà, Ìjẹ̀bú


d

From Proto-Berber *d. Cognate with Central Atlas Tamazight ⴷ (d).

D tidett!

Nekk d anelmad.


d

proximal particle; suffixed onto verbs to indicate a direction towards an inferred reference point


б

Если б знали вы, как мне дороги
Подмосковные вечера.

1956, “Подмосковные вечера (Moscow Suburban Evenings)”, Mikhail Matusovsky (lyrics), Vasily Solovyov-Sedoi (music):

If ye would know, how dear [they are] to me
The Moscow suburban nights.

Jesli b znali vy, kak mne dorogi
Podmoskovnyje večera.


б

Inherited from Old Ruthenian бы (by), from Old East Slavic бꙑ (by), from Proto-Slavic *by.

would, expresses a conditional statement (following a vowel)


z

Polish: z

Silesian: z

Inherited from Proto-Slavic *jьz. First attested in the 14th century.


z

Inherited from Old Polish z, from Proto-Slavic *jьz.

Mam z pięć jabłek

(colloquial) approximately, about, around, ish, or so


c

Borrowed from English c (cee), homophonous to si.


э

а мый нигӧмат ом ончо: э куржам

I can't see anyone right now, I'm off and running


ч

хэн ч байхгүй

no-, any- (after interrogative pronouns, used with a negative verb)

every, -ever, any- (after interrogative pronouns)


ж

Что ж ты милая, смотришь искоса,
Низко голову наклоня?

Why then art thou, dear, looking askance,
Tilting your head low?

Što ž ty milaja, smotrišʹ iskosa,
Nizko golovu naklonja?


ж

Inherited from Old East Slavic же (že), from Proto-Slavic *že, from Proto-Balto-Slavic *ge, from Proto-Indo-European *ǵʰi. Cognate with Czech že, Ancient Greek γε (ge), Sanskrit हि (hi), Russian же (že).

Але́ ж це кни́жка!

Ти ж вдо́ма?

stresses the topic; is, really, right, isn't it, etc. (used as a tag question would be in English)


л

Зогс л доо!

(imperative) just; well; so (used after a verb to reinforce an instruction)

Чи л бүгдийг нь идсэн.


е

Е, и после?

Е, та какво?

Е, как можа?

Е, какво ще правим сега?

Много е скъпа тая рокля. ― Е, скъпа е, но е много хубава.
Mnogo e skǎpa taja roklja. ― E, skǎpa e, no e mnogo hubava.
This dress is very expensive. ― Well, it is expensive, but it's very nice.

Много си сгрешила, като си постъпила така. ― Е, да, сгреших…
Mnogo si sgrešila, kato si postǎpila taka. ― E, da, sgreših…
You've made a big mistake by acting like that. ― Well, yes, I have…

used to agree to something, rather unwillingly, well

Е, чакам отговора ти.

used to express that one is waiting for somebody to say something, well

Е, нека оставим тази тема настрана.

Е, по-добре да тръгвам.

used to mark the end of a conversation, well


保

保聀塘𫠯𪫆宮閣

I do not know the way back to the palace


и

Меги ӿуктоӽ виныте, и?


и

→ Ingrian: i

→ Komi-Zyrian: и (i)

Inherited from Proto-Slavic *i, from Proto-Indo-European *ei, an early locative singular determiner, formed from the root *h₁e-, *h₁o-. Compare Greek εἰ (ei, “if”), Gothic 𐌴𐌹 (ei, “and, so that, be it”). Follows from ablative Proto-Indo-European *ed.

Он так и де́лает.

Она́ и пошла́ туда́.

Оно́ и есть тако́е.

Я и есть тот челове́к. ― Ja i jestʹ tot čelovék. ― I am that person.

Used as an emphasiser, including in a few set phrases.

А е́сли и есть...

And if there is... (after having stated that there isn't)

А мо́жет быть и нет.

Or maybe not (after having stated that something may be).

Э́то бу́дет траге́дией, но, похо́же, всё к э́тому и идёт.

This would be a tragedy, but it looks like things are heading that way.

Éto búdet tragédijej, no, poxóže, vsjo k étomu i idjót.

как и всегда́

Он челове́к, как и ты.

Я осужда́л всех, в том числе́ и себя́.

Опа́сность мирово́го конфли́кта, хотя́ и отдалённая, по-пре́жнему сохраня́ется.

The risk of world conflict, though remote, is still present.

Opásnostʹ mirovóvo konflíkta, xotjá i otdaljónnaja, po-préžnemu soxranjájetsja.

Я не зна́ю, поэ́тому и спра́шиваю.

так и есть

так и на́до

Мне э́то и впрямь ко́е-что напомина́ет.

Похо́же, ты и впра́вду меня́ пло́хо зна́ешь.

Poxóže, ty i vprávdu menjá plóxo znáješʹ.

Не отта́лкивай того́ челове́ка, кото́рый и пра́вда беспоко́ится о тебе́.

Don't push away the person who actually cares about you.

Ne ottálkivaj tovó čelovéka, kotóryj i právda bespokóitsja o tebé.

вот и всё

А вот и наш друг.

почему́ бы и нет

так и не

и без того́


叱

desc

Middle Korean: ㅅ (-s, genitive case marker for inanimate or honored animate nouns)

Korean: ㅅ (-s-, interfix)

Genitive case marker, chiefly for inanimate nouns.

衣

genitive case marker, often for animate nouns

尸

*-lq; genitive case marker, chiefly for honored animate nouns; possibly an allomorph of 叱


а

Inherited from Proto-Slavic *a (“and, but”)

inh+

А як жа?

interrogative particle: introduces a question


а

А върви де!

А да идем на кино.

А удари ме, ако смееш.

Кажи де, а кажи!

used in orders for emphasis: let’s, just

разперила криле, а-а да хвръкне


а

тый таче тышеч кает уке, а?

so, huh (particle placed at the end of questions)


а

А јас?


а

Compare Lithuanian à, õ, oà (“expression of pain, surprise”), as well as Gothic 𐍉 (ō, “ah!”), Latin ā, āh (“expression of pain, anger”), Ancient Greek ἆ (â, “ah!”)

Ты слы́шишь меня́, а?

Ты придёшь сего́дня, а?

Он говори́т с одно́й мое́й Мари́ной,
Мари́ною одно́ю за́нят он…
А де́ло-то на сва́дьбу страх похо́же.
Ну — ду́мал ты, призна́йся, Вишневе́цкий,
Что дочь моя́ цари́цей бу́дет? а?

1831, Александр Пушкин [Alexander Pushkin], “Замок воеводы Мнишка в Самборе”, in Борис Годунов; English translation from Richard Pevear and Larissa Volokhonsky, transl., Boris Godunov, New York: Vintage Books, 2023:

He only wants to talk with my Marina,
Marina is the only one who interests him…
The matter looks terribly like a wedding. Well—
Confess, Vishnevetsky, did you ever think
That my daughter would become a tsaritsa? eh?

On govorít s odnój mojéj Marínoj,
Marínoju odnóju zánjat on…
A délo-to na svádʹbu strax poxóže.
Nu — dúmal ty, priznájsja, Višnevéckij,
Što dočʹ mojá carícej búdet? a?

colloquial particle used to seek confirmation: eh


а

А то для чого?

А як же?


中

q

compounded with <i class="Kore mention" lang="oko">良</i> (*-a)

Old Korean: 良中 (*-akuy) (compounded with 良 (*-a))

Middle Korean: 에〮 (-éy)

Korean: 에 (-e)

Middle Korean: 희 (-huy) (rare)

蓬次叱巷中宿尸夜音

c. 690, 得烏 (Deugo), “慕竹旨郞歌 (Mojukjirang-ga)”, in 三國遺事 (Samguk Yusa) [Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms]:

nights where you will sleep in a village of mugwort plants

川理叱磧惡希

c. 740, 忠談師 (Chungdamsa), “讚耆婆郞歌 (Changiparang-ga)”, in 三國遺事 (Samguk Yusa) [Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms]:

命乙施好尸歲史中置

c. 965, 均如 (Gyunyeo), “常隨彿學歌 (Sangsubulhak-ga)”, in 均如傳 (Gyunyeo-jeon) [Works of Gyunyeo]:

even in the age that I cast my life away

in; at; amid (locative case marker, attested in isolation only before the eleventh century)

希

*-huy; probably represents lenition of initial *k

良中

locative case marker predominant after the eleventh century


利

人次人嗚

mid-6th century, Wooden Tablet #221 from Seongsan Sanseong, Haman:

many people [lit. people and people] lamented

佛伊衆生毛叱所只

c. 965, 均如 (Gyunyeo), “隨喜功德歌 (Suhuigongdeok-ga)”, in 均如傳 (Gyunyeo-jeon) [Works of Gyunyeo]:

so that there is no [more] "Buddha and the sentient beings"

一切諸佛^刂菩薩

10th century, Interpretive jeomto gugyeol glosses to Volume 20 of the Jinbon Avatamsaka Sutra:


u

utyásuuna ša'ari cahta'a

The water is pouring into the (deep) pot.

entering a deep domain; entering a domain in an extensive manner


只

Middle Korean: ㄱ (-k)

An emphatic particle attached to the connective form of verbs.


嚕

終於做完嚕！

终于做完噜！

(Cantonese) Used at the end of a sentence to indicate relief due to change of state.

As (I) kept on spending money, it was quick before it has all been used up!

di¹ cin⁴⁻² jung⁶ haa⁵ jung⁶ haa⁵, waa⁶ gam³ faai³ zau⁶ jung⁶ saai³ lu³.

啲錢用下用下，話咁快就用嗮嚕。

啲钱用下用下，话咁快就用嗮噜。

(Cantonese) Used at the end of a sentence to indicate disappointment due to change of state.


咳

勸𪫆对珠斋咳𱻰
Khuyên mừa đuổi chua tai hợi nhỉ

各𫰇咳各娘
Các noọng ới các nàng


e

used to mark the following verb as an infinitive; to

used before a name, a noun or a phrase to address someone or something


e

Marks the imperfective aspect, for actions that are not completed.


e

Used to link a possessed noun to its possessor.


e

From Proto-Polynesian *e. Cognates include Hawaiian e and Maori e.

Used to mark the subject of a non-stative verb.

Used to form a vocative of the following (proper) noun.


e

imperfective aspect
imperfective aspect#English

Used to indicate the imperfective aspect.

Used before numerals to form cardinal numbers.


e

indicates that an action is unfinished when inserted before the verb


e

From Proto-Polynesian *e. Cognates include Hawaiian e and Samoan e.

Ko kimatou, ia tagata o Tokelau, e takutino

1948, Tūlāfono fakavae a Tokelau [Constitution of Tokelau], page 1:

We, the people of Tokelau, (do) speak openly


e

present tense marker, inserted immediately before the relevant verb


妸

Sawndip form of a (“particle used to express question”)


呵

𱽗好𱻊帝鍾用呵

𫠿蘭呵菊秋
Dâng lan à cúc thu

Nôm form of à (“Sound made during singing.”).


尸

A genitive case marker chiefly attested after honored animate nouns.


排

排𫪄噌𠮙扒𫪄噌噫
Páy kin dằng ắt, bảt kin dằng í


平

麻平赦汾𪥛


是

desc

Middle Korean: 이 (-i, nominative case marker)

Korean: 이 (-i, nominative case marker)


果

Middle Korean: 과 (-kwa)

Korean: 과 (-gwa)

q

Middle Korean: 와 (-Gwa) (allomorph following a vowel, produced by intervocalic lenition of *-k)

Korean: 와 (-wa)

等^果惠^果灌頂^(果叱)三品士^隱

c. 1250, Interpretive gugyeol glosses to the Humane King Sutra:

As for the three gentlemen of Dengguan and Huiguang and Guanding

*TUNG-kwa HYEY-kwa KWANTYENG-kwa-s SAMPHWUMSO-n

and; with (comitative case marker; attached to multiple connected nouns)


त

Particle with slight adversative or contrasting force: then, now


घ

From Proto-Indo-European *gʰe. Cognate to Ancient Greek γε (ge).


न

कृपया न पीजिये!

not, do not; prohibitive particle (c.f. मत (mat))

मेरा नाम बहुत लम्बा, है न?


न

Dardic:

Gawar-Bati: [script needed] (na)

Indus Kohistani: [script needed] (na)

Kalami: [script needed] (na)

desc

Khowar: [script needed] (na), [script needed] (no)

Kashmiri:

Arabic script: نَہ (na), نا (nā), نہٕ (nụ)

Devanagari script: न (na), ना (nā), नॖ (nụ)

Kohistani Shina: [script needed] (na)

Northeast Pashayi: [script needed] (na)

Northwest Pashayi: [script needed] (na)

Phalura: [script needed] (na)

Shina: [script needed] (na)

Southeast Pashayi: [script needed] (na)

Southwest Pashayi: [script needed] (na)

Tirahi: [script needed] (nā)

Torwali: [script needed] (na)

Wotapuri-Katarqalai: [script needed] (na)

Helu Prakrit:

Dhivehi: ނަ (na)

Sinhalese: න (na)

Magadhi Prakrit: 𑀡 (ṇa), 𑀡𑀸 (ṇā)

Assamese: না (na)

Bengali: না (na)

Bihari: ना (nā)

Bhojpuri: ना (nā)

Maithili: ना (nā)

Odia: ନା (nā)

Maharastri Prakrit: 𑀡 (ṇa), 𑀡𑀸 (ṇā)

Konkani: ना (nā)

Marathi: ना (nā)

Pali: na

Sauraseni Prakrit: 𑀡 (ṇa), 𑀡𑀸 (ṇā)

Garhwali: ना (nā)

Gujarati: ના (nā)

Hindustani:

Hindi: न (na, “don't”), ना (nā, “don't”)

Urdu: نہ (na, “don't”), نا (nā, “no”)

Kumaoni: न (na)

Marwari: ना (nā)

Nepali: न (na)

Punjabi: ਨਾ (nā)

Romani: na

Sindhi: न (na)

From Proto-Indo-Aryan *ná, from Proto-Indo-Iranian *ná, from Proto-Indo-European *né. Cognate with Latin ne, English no.

सा वस्वी॑ न अ॑स्ति॥

(when used with an interrogative) no, not, none, no one, nothing, never, etc.

(with repetition) absolutely, very much, unequivocally


इ

From Proto-Indo-European *éy. See also अयम् (ayam).

demonstrative pronoun
demonstrative pronoun

base of the nominative and accusative singular dual and plural of the demonstrative pronoun इदम् (idam), ‘this’ or ‘that’


म

ma (romanization)
Gurjara (romanization)

Central Indo-Aryan:

Old Hindi: म (ma)

Eastern Indo-Aryan:

Old Bengali: মা

Northwestern Indo-Aryan:

Punjabic:

⇒ Old Punjabi: ਮ(ਖਟੂ) (ma(khaṭū) /ma(khaṭṭū)/, “not earning, idle”, adjective), ਮ(ਚਾਂਗਵਾ) (ma(cāṅgavā), “not good, bad”, adjective)

Sindhic:

Kachchi: ma

Gujarati script: મ

Khojki script: 𑈤

Khudawadi script: 𑋗

Sindhi: ma

Arabic script: مَ

Devanagari script: म

Khojki script: 𑈤

Khudawadi script: 𑋗

Western Indo-Aryan:

desctree

Old Gujarati: म (ma)
Gujarati: મા (mā)
Marwari: mā
Devanagari script: मा
Mahajani script: 𑅬 (m /mā/)

Romani: ma

Inherited from Prakrit मा (mā), from Ashokan Prakrit 𑀫𑀸 (mā), from Sanskrit मा (mā́).

महु कंतहो बे दोसडा
हेल्लि म झंखहि आलु ।
mahu kaṃtaho be dosaḍā
helli ma jhaṃkhahi ālu.

c. 1088 – 1173, Hemachandra, Siddha-Hema-Śabdanuśāśana Chapter 8 4.379.1

My lover has [only] two flaws
my friend, do not tell a lie

1928 translation by Parashuram Lakshman Vaidya


江

1977, 週刊文春1977年1月13日号
内藤国雄より美空ひばり賛江
Naitō Kunio yori Misora Hibari san e
From Kunio Naito to dear Ms. Hibari Misora

(dated) Alternative spelling of へ (e, “to, towards”)


江

(obsolete) Identical in meaning to the particle へ, but used only after pronunciations of え, 𛀁, and ゑ.


留

Middle Korean: 로 (-lwo)

Korean: 로 (ro)

以

logographic variant used in Idu and Gugyeol texts

by; with; using (instrumental case marker)


總

chữ Hán form of tổng (“general; overall; comprehensive”).


罠

Ateji used to spell わ (wa) + な (na), both sentence-final emphatic particles. Usage developed on online message boards.

そうだ罠

(sentence-final) Equivalent to わ (wa, “emphatic particle”) + な (na, “emotive/emphatic particle”)


良

q

compounded with <i class="Kore mention" lang="oko">中</i> (*-kuy)

Old Korean: 良中 (*-akuy) (compounded with 中 (*-kuy))

Middle Korean: 에〮 (-éy)

Korean: 에 (-e)

一等隱枝良出古

c. 750, 月明師 (Wolmyeongsa), “祭亡妹歌 (Jemangmae-ga)”, in 三國遺事 (Samguk Yusa) [Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms]:

even though they sprout on a single branch

in; at; on; locative case marker, attested primarily in hyangga poems


裒

笠𱒢審𫡱𫢍帝裒
Chúp pi̱ thổm sloong cần đảy bấu

Nôm form of bấu (“indicates a yes-no question”).


ah

[äː˨˦ ~ ʌ̈ː˨˦]

From Hokkien 啊 (--a), Teochew 啊 (a⁷), Mandarin 啊 (a).

You’re dyslexic ah? ― So you’re dyslexic?

Only 2 ft apart considered safe ah?

2020 December 4, Notdumb, “Liddat is safe distance ah?”, in SG Talk, archived from the original on 2020-04-18:

Marks a tag question prompting the listener to clarify something.

See how lor. Who’s going ar?

2011 October 23, Rachel Chang, “LifeStyle”, in The Sunday Times, page 15:

Used for emphasis; reinforces a short wh-question.

Don't drink and drive ah...

Sure, ah? Thanks, man, pai seh.

2010 April 18, Colin Goh, “LifeStyle”, in The Sunday Times, page 24:

Emphasizes the need for absolute confirmation or acknowledgment.

The drilling upstairs ah, non-stop leh.

A filler word separating the topic of a sentence and its comment.

A filler word used to ascertain the continued attention of the listener.


ha

From Proto-Turkic [Term?] (“yes”). Compare Azerbaijani hə (“yes”), Turkmen hawa (“yes”), Uzbek ha (“yes”), Uyghur ھەئە (he'e, “yes”), Kazakh иә (iä, “yes”), Southern Altai эйе (eye, “yes”), Tatar әйе (äye, “aye, yes, yea”), Bashkir эйе (eye, “yes”), Chuvash ээх (eeh, “yes”).

Geliyor musun? — Ha, geliyorum.

(colloquial, dialectal, archaic) yes; yeah


ha

Đẹp ghê ha ?

(Southern Vietnam, colloquial) yes?; no?; m'kay?; amirite?


ha

Used at the end of a sentence to express an imperative.

Used at the end of a question used as a retort.


衣

Middle Korean: 의〮 (-úy)

Korean: 의 (-ui)

Jeju: 의 (-ui)


gr

Amarna-period Late Egyptian, c. 1350 BCE


mu

Ona bu soruyu sordun mu?

Mutlu musun?

Pikniğe gitmiyor muyuz?


mu

Mu jna'.


ol

From English all. Cognate with Tok Pisin ol.

Indicates the plural of the following noun; -s


ol

Middle Irish: ol, ar, or, for, bar

Irish: ar (“said, says”)

Kortlandt believes this particle to be a contraction of a Proto-Celtic phrase beginning with *ol est. In particular, he derives the inflected form olsí from a contraction of a Proto-Celtic phrase *ol est ēgt, with *ēgt deriving from *h₁eǵ- (“to say”). Its ending was reinterpreted as the feminine singular pronoun sí, giving rise to the analogical masculine form olsé.

“A n-atamm·res-⟨s⟩a,” ol Día.


ol

Bihain God i tok olsem, “Solwara i mas pulap long ol kain kain samting i gat laip. Na ol pisin i mas kamap na flai nabaut long skai.”

1989, Buk Baibel long Tok Pisin, Port Moresby: Bible Society of Papua New Guinea, Jenesis 1:20:


ta

Dəniz qırağına kimi qaçdı.

Ta dəniz qırağına kimi qaçdı. (the longness emphasized)

Səni görmək üçün ta burayacan yol gəldim.

I came a long way all the way here to see you.

ta indiyə qədər davam edən dava

a conflict continuing all the way until now

all the way (adds emphasis to the measurement of a physical or temporal distance; coupled with kimi (“until”), qədər (“until”), -dək (“until”) or -cən (“until”))


ta

Inherited from Spanish clipping of está.

inh

clipping of <i class="Latn mention" lang="es">está</i>


ta

From Portuguese está (“is”), third-person singular present indicative of estar (“to be”).

[…], que da-cá su quião que ta pertencê a êll.

1883, Hugo Schuchardt, Kreolische Studien, volume 3:

[…] , to give him his share which belongs (literally: is belonging) to him.


ta

Polish: ta

Jszem czom wsąl troye cony, vosz y schekira, tom wsal w mego pąna v szapuscze, gdzyes ta nykt nye rabi, yedno czo v Brodi przedawa

1959 [1430], Henryk Kowalewicz, Władysław Kuraszkiewicz, editors, Wielkopolskie roty sądowe XIV-XV wieku, Roty poznańskie, volume I, number 1348, Poznań:

(attested in Greater Poland) emphatic particle


ta

head

ta (discourse, Perso-Arabic spelling تہ)

Particle with different-subject marking function (variously corresponding to 'when, then, so (that), and')


ta

(regional, often attached to a verb) emphatic particle


ta

Non-Sino-Vietnamese reading of Chinese 咱 (“I; me, we; us”, SV: cha).

der

SV: <i class="Latn mention" lang="vi">cha</i>

vi-etym-sino

Sao kì vậy ta?

Why so strange? / What's wrong with you?

Ông già quê ở đâu ta?

Giỏi quá ta!

(colloquial, informal) final particle used to reinforce a question, to express surprise, or to indicate familiarity with whom the person is speaking with


ta

Ultimately from bynnag (“-ever”). Initially, bynnag began preceding rather than following the word it qualfied, for example, beth bynnag (“whatever”) became bynnag beth. The initial g of bynnag was velarised to produce gynnag beth, whereupon the word was reanalysed as the phrase gan nag, a southern colloquial form of gan nad, literally "since (that) not". The apparent inconsistency of negative nag being a part of a phrase with no negative connotations led its replacement with corresponding affirmative taw (“that”), so gan nag beth became gan taw beth. The initial gan was subsequently dropped and the pronunciation of taw /tau̯/ reduced to ta /ta/, as is customary, leading to such forms as ta beth (“whatever”) today.

(South Wales, informal) -ever precedes interrogative pronouns to form indefinite pronouns


隱

Middle Korean: 은〮 (-(ú)n, topic marker)

desc

Early Modern Korean: 은 (-(u)n, topic marker)

Korean: 은 (-(eu)n, topic marker)

Jeju: 은 (-(eu)n, topic marker)

生死路隱此矣有阿米次肹伊遣

As life and death's paths [TOP] are present here, my way is blocked [or "I am in fear" or "I hesitate"].

[此]^是菩薩^隱[是]^是事有^(叱隱入以)

c. 1170, Interpretive gugyeol glosses to the Avatamsaka Sutra, vol. 35, pages 1:04—05:

Given that this Bodhisattva [TOP] has this matter

佛^隱[言]^(]乃示尸)善男子^良五種法^乙依^良

c. 1250, Interpretive gugyeol glosses to the Golden Light Sutra:

As for the Buddha, his [honored] sayings: "O good men! Rely on the Five Laws, and..."

*PWUTHYE-n nwoy-si-l SYEN.NAM.CO-ya WO.CYONG.PEP-ur UY[?]-a

The Korean topic marker, with various nuances according to context:

Used to mark an already known topic, to which the subsequent statement applies.

君隱父也臣隱愛賜尸母史也

765, 忠談師 (Chungdamsa), “安民歌 (Anmin-ga)”, in 三國遺事 (Samguk Yusa) [Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms]:

The sovereign [TOP] is a father; the ministers [TOP] are loving mothers

*NIMKUM-un AP-ye SIN-un TOSU-si-lq Esi-ye

法身^隱虛空如^(支齊)智慧^隱大雲如^(支齊爲良)

c. 1250, Interpretive gugyeol glosses to the Golden Light Sutra, page 7.14:

As for the dharmakāya, it is akin to emptiness, and as for wisdom, it is like a great cloud, so […]

Used in comparative or contrastive constructions.

[於]十地^(良中隱)智波羅蜜^乙行向^(爲在音叱如)

c. 1250, Interpretive gugyeol glosses to the Golden Light Sutra, pages 8.15—16:

Indeed in the ten bhūmis, it is fitting that one constantly practices the wisdom pāramitā


fe

head

fe (triggers soft mutation on the following verb)

Fe werthes i hanner dwsin.

(South Wales) used with inflected verbs to mark affirmative statements.


ni

Middle High German: ne

German: nee (dialectal)


ni

From Proto-Slavic *ni (“nor, not”), from Proto-Balto-Slavic *nej, from Proto-Indo-European *ney. Compare ni-, ne.

ni ja to ne znam

even I don't know that; I don't know that either

Nisam ni htio čuti njegov prijedlog.

I didn't even want to hear his proposal.


ni

Changes a statement into a polite question; isn't it? doesn't it?


ni

Men O'zbek tilini o'rganyapman.

accusative case marker; placed after the direct object of a transitive verb


ni

Northern Ryukyuan:

Kikai: に (ni)

Kunigami: に (ni)

Northern Amami Ōshima: に (ni)

Okinawan: に (ni)

Okinoerabu: に (ni)

Southern Amami Ōshima: に (ni)

Tokunoshima: に (ni)

Yoron: に (ni)

Southern Ryukyuan:

Miyako: ん (n)

Yaeyama: に (ni)

Yonaguni: に (ni)

From Proto-Japonic *ni (“locative marker”).


ni

Old Japanese: に (ni)

Japanese: に (ni)

Proto-Ryukyuan: *ni

Northern Ryukyuan: に (ni) (Omoro Sōshi, 12th-16th century)

Kikai: に (ni)

Kunigami: に (ni)

Northern Amami Ōshima: に (ni)

Okinawan: に (ni)

Okinoerabu: に (ni)

Southern Amami Ōshima: に (ni)

Tokunoshima: に (ni)

Yoron: に (ni)

Southern Ryukyuan: *ni (Bentley, 2008)

Miyako: ん (n)

Yaeyama: に (ni)

Yonaguni: に (ni)

Likely related to ancient copular element nu, as reflected in conclusive auxiliary suffix ぬ (-nu), genitive and appositive particle の (no), and verb なる (naru, “to become”).


nah

Téet náh apúw.


li

Inherited from Proto-Slavic *li. First attested in 1395. Displaced by Polish czy.

Kaco bog we y iestli wedzene (si est scientia) na wysocosci?

1939 [end of the 14th century], Ryszard Ganszyniec, Witold Taszycki, Stefan Kubica, Ludwik Bernacki, editors, Psałterz florjański łacińsko-polsko-niemiecki [Sankt Florian Psalter], Krakow: Zakład Narodowy imienia Ossolińskich, z zasiłkiem Sejmu Śląskiego [The Ossoliński National Institute: with the benefit of the Silesian Parliament], pages 72, 11:

Kedi w wogewodi bili, tedi go szø pitali, moszeli goscza dafnoszcø sbicz

1959 [1395], Henryk Kowalewicz, Władysław Kuraszkiewicz, editors, Wielkopolskie roty sądowe XIV-XV wieku, Roty poznańskie, volume I, number 187, Poznań:

(attested in Lesser Poland, Greater Poland) interrogative particle: introduces a yes-no question

attested in Lesser Poland; Greater Poland; attested in Lesser Poland; Greater Poland

Mamly boiowacz s Fylystinmy a podaszly ge (num persequar Philisthiim, si trades eos) w røce israhelske?

1930 [c. 1455], “I Reg”, in Ludwik Bernacki, editor, Biblia królowej Zofii (Biblia szaroszpatacka), 14, 37:

Gestly pan w nas czyly nyczs (estne..., an non)?

1930 [c. 1455], “Ex”, in Ludwik Bernacki, editor, Biblia królowej Zofii (Biblia szaroszpatacka), 17, 7:

Pytalysczye nasz...: Gyestly k themv mvrowanemv domv nyewyasthą blyszką, czyly thy tho dzyeczy, czyly prawo

Nye vymy, gdzye y nam vyedzyono any vymy, yesczely zyw, albo yvzly vbyly

Middle of the 15th century, Rozmyślanie o żywocie Pana Jezusa, page 694:

Primo an liceat, moszeli, volnoli yest, secundo an deceat, podobnoli, tertio an expediat, pot[r]zebnoli

1874-1891 [15th century], Rozprawy i Sprawozdania z Posiedzeń Wydziału Filologicznego Akademii Umiejętności, volume XXIV, Grochów, West Pomeranian Voivodeship, Kcynia, page 68:

Opatrzicze... lvd, genze bydli w nyey, gestli silni, czili mdli, iestli mali, czili wyeliki (considerate... et populum, qui habitator est eius, utrum fortis sit, an infirmus, si pauci numero, an plures)

1930 [c. 1455], “Num”, in Ludwik Bernacki, editor, Biblia królowej Zofii (Biblia szaroszpatacka), 13, 19:

Szescz czlowyekow ranyono, o pyancz gich mowyą tim rasem, szostego *wygmugyo, czso leszy we szmyertnich ranach, bo nye wem, bądzeli szyw, abo umrze

1861 [1427], Pismo poświęcone naukom, sztukom i przemysłowi, volume III, Biblioteka Warszawska, page 40:

(when reduplicated, attested in Pomerania, Greater Poland) whether … or

attested in Lesser Poland; Greater Poland; when reduplicated; attested in Pomerania; Greater Poland; when reduplicated; attested in Pomerania; Greater Poland

Czczyenye o tem, gdzye Marya vtenczasz byla, kyedy anyol k nyey przyschedl, czoly czynyla albo myslyla

Middle of the 15th century, Rozmyślanie o żywocie Pana Jezusa, page 48:


li

(archaic, literary) interrogative particle: introduces a yes-no question


li

poznaješ li me

jesi li stigao na odredište?

jeste li ga vid(j)eli

gd(j)e li se samo nalazimo?

kad li će doći?

je li?

question-forming interrogative particle (postpositive, unlike other particles, never first word in a sentence)

da li

nemam pojma da li je došao ― I have no idea whether he came (Croatian: "nemam pojma je li došao")

used as conjunction with da (except in Croatian, je li is used instead)

pokušaš li me napasti, ja ću ti uzvratiti ― should you try to attack me, I'll strike you back (when "li" is used in this sense, it is usually translated as a subjunctive form "should", and when "ako" is used, it is usually translated as "if" - ako me pokušaš napasti = if you try to attack me)

a sn(ij)eg pada li pada

the snow just keeps falling and falling...

d(ij)ete plače li plače

the child just keeps crying and crying...


li

Appended with a hyphen to a verb, it turns the entire clause it is in into a question.


li

From Proto-Balto-Slavic *lei, from Proto-Indo-European *h₂el- (pronominal root). Cognates include Lithuanian -li (as in nùli (“now, just now”), juoli (“especially, all the more so”)), Latvian -lei, -lai (as in nulei, nulai (“now, just now”)), and probably Lithuanian lai (“let”) and Latvian lai (“let”). Other cognates include Latin olle.


co

Inherited from Old Czech čso, from Proto-Slavic *čьto, from Proto-Indo-European *kʷid, *kʷis.

To je pěkné, co?

(indeclinable) isn't it so, don't you think?


co

Interesujące, co?

used as a tag question, to emphasise what goes before or to request that the listener express an opinion about what has been said


ra

Wẹ́ ra kú

(Ekiti) not (placed before a verb to negate it, often used after personal pronouns)


ea

Ea nork egin dituen etxeko lanak.

Used in indirect questions as an intensifier.

Ea azkar sendatzen zaren.

Used to express one's desire; I hope, I wish


ca

Apocopated form of casa. Compare French chez, Spanish ca, Italian ca'.

Anem a ca la Maria.

Aquell casalot és cal Ramon.

Parlem català a ca nostra.


ca

Bats: ცა (ca)

Vainakh:

Chechen: ца (ca)

Ingush: ца (ca)


am

See the etymology of the corresponding lemma form.

nonlemma

Form of an (interrogative particle) used before the consonants b-, f-, m- or p-.


ga

Marker of inferred, assumed or presumed knowledge


ga

ᜄ (Baybayin)
Quezon (Batangas)
Mindoro (Batangas)
Marinduque (Batangas)

Possibly a shortened form of baga, from Proto-Malayo-Polynesian *ba. Cognate with Cebuano ba and Malagasy va.


ga

Northern Ryukyuan:

Kikai: が (ga)

Kunigami: が (ga)

Northern Amami Ōshima: が (ga)

Okinawan: が (ga)

Okinoerabu: が (ga)

Southern Amami Ōshima: が (ga)

Tokunoshima: が (ga)

Yoron: が (ga)

Southern Ryukyuan

Miyako: が (ga)

Yaeyama: が (ga)

Yonaguni: か゚ (ng'a)

From Proto-Japonic *-nka (“genitive marker (in pronouns)”).


(Hong Kong Cantonese, Internet slang, neologism) A negation particle


ho

Taga-saan naman ho kayo?

(familiar) honorific particle used while speaking to one's superior, elder, or guest


voi

Borrowed from Livonian vȯi. Akin to Latvian vai.


der

From Old Norse þar, from Proto-Germanic *þar (“there”), cognate with English there, German da.

hun købte bordet der for ingen penge

(deictic particle) that (put after a definite noun phrase)


ne

inherited from Old Czech ne, from Proto-Slavic *ne, from Proto-Balto-Slavic *ne, from Proto-Indo-European *ne.


ne

From French ne, Polish nie, Russian не (ne), etc.

nee

rejectingly, denyingly, with the word no


ne

From Middle French, from Old French nen or ne preceding words starting in a consonant, from Latin nōn.

Je ne sais si je dois vous appeler Monsieur ou Mademoiselle […].

I don't know if I should call you Mr or Miss.

Le prince de France nous aime, celui d’Espagne ne cesse de nous secourir.

1826, Victor Hugo, Bug-Jargal, section XXXVIII:

The prince of France loves us, that of Spain never stops helping us.

Je n’ose te jurer que je t’aime toujours, parce que je sens bien que tu ne me croirais pas.

I dare not swear that I still love you, for I sense that you would not believe me.

Mais je ne le crois pas : un homme qui trouve naturel de dénoncer des hommes ne peut avoir notre conception de l’humain […].

1943, Jean-Paul Sartre, Réflexions sur la question juive:

But I don't think so: a man who finds it natural to denounce men cannot have our idea of being human.

L’amour s’en va, et le tien ne saurait durer.

Love goes away, and yours will not be able to last.

(literary) not (used alone to negate a verb; now chiefly with only a few particular verbs: see usage notes)

Je ne sais rien de plus odieux que l’hypocrisie.

I don't know anything more odious than hypocrisy.

Bruno se rendit compte qu’il ne serait jamais accepté par les hippies […].

1998, Michel Houellebecq, Les Particules Élémentaires:

Bruno realised that he'd never be accepted by the hippies.

"Il n’y a pas eu un truc auquel on ne s’attendait pas", affirme Stéphane Le Foll.

"There wasn't anything we weren't expecting," stated Stéphane Le Foll.

not, no (used before a verb, with a coordinating negative element usually following; see Usage Notes, below)

Ah! mes cheveux blanchiront avant que ma tête ne tombe!

1829, Victor Hugo, Le Derner Jour d'un Condamné, section XXVII:

Oh! My hair will go white before my head falls!

Oui, mais je crains qu’elle ne soit plus malade qu’elle ne l’avoue, repartit l’abbé.

"Yes, but I think she might be more ill than she's letting on," the priest replied.

Used in a subordinate clause before a subjunctive verb (especially when the main verb expresses doubt or fear), to provide extra overtones of doubt or uncertainty (but not negating its verb); the so-called "pleonastic" or "expletive" ne.

Apprendre le français est plus facile qu’on ne pense.

Learning French is easier than you (might) think.

In comparative clauses usually translated with the positive sense of the subsequent negative


ne

From Middle High German ne, ni (“not, if not”), from Old High German ne, ni (“no, not, not at all, by no means”), from Proto-West Germanic *ne, from Proto-Germanic *ne (“not”), from Proto-Indo-European *ne (“not”). Also possibly from a contraction of nicht, dialectal net, nit, ni.

Wir müssen da lang, ne?

Du hast keine Geschwister, ne?

(colloquial, regional, Northern Germany, North Rhine-Westphalia) right?; is it?; is it not?; tag question


ne

Compare Tagalog 'no, Japanese な (na), ね (ne).

Nokarin ya kaya ne?

(informal) sentence-final particle indicating emotion or mild emphasis

Mako naku ne?

(tag question) sentence-final question marker particle indicating emphasis and asking for confirmation: right?; eh?; isn't it, innit?


ne

Czech: ne

Inherited from Proto-Slavic *ne, from Proto-Slavic *ne, from Proto-Balto-Slavic *ne, from Proto-Indo-European *ne.


ne

From Proto-Germanic *ne (“not”). Cognates include Old English ne and Old Saxon ne.


ne

From Proto-Slavic *ne, from Proto-Balto-Slavic *ne, from Proto-Indo-European *ne.

ne znam

on je ne samo darovit, već i jako marljiv

he is not only talented, but also very industrious

htio-ne htio

da ne spavaš? / ne spavaš li? / zar ne spavaš?

ne mogu, a da ne…

reći ne

ne manje nego/od…

ne doći

… Zar ne?

… Aren't you? (Isn't it?, Do you?, Don't you?)

neću


ne

From Proto-Slavic *ne, from Proto-Indo-European *ne.

no (expresses disapproval, disagreement)


ne

Compare Ilocano ne, Kapampangan ne, and Japanese ね (ne).

Tapos magkikita tayo sa bahay ni Aling Neneng, ne?

Afterwards, we'll see each other at Ms. Neneng's house, am I right?

Maligo ka na, ne?

(Bataan, Nueva Ecija, tag question) Sentence-final question marker particle indicating emphasis and asking for confirmation: right?; eh?; isn't it, innit?


ne

past tense marker, inserted immediately before the relevant verb


ne

Proto-West Germanic:

desctree

Old English: ne
Middle English: ne, ny, ni (rare)
English: ne (obsolete)
Scots: ne (obsolete)

Old Frisian: ne, ni

Old Saxon: ne, ni
Middle Low German: ne, en

Old Dutch: ne

Middle Dutch: ne
Dutch: n- (prefix)

Old High German: ni, ne
Middle High German: ne
German: nee (dialectal)

Proto-Norse: ᚾᛁ (ni) (unstressed)

Old Norse: ne, né

Gothic: 𐌽𐌹 (ni)


ne

Proto-Albanian: *ne uka

Albanian: nuk (not, doesn’t)

Proto-Balto-Slavic: *ne (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Celtic: *ne (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Germanic: *ne, *ni (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Indo-Iranian: *ná (see there for further descendants)

Proto-Italic: *nē (see there for further descendants)

ně-

some but indefinite who; see there for further descendants


ne

East Slavic:

Old East Slavic: не (ne)

Belarusian: не (nje), ня (nja) (unstressed)

Russian: не (ne)

Carpathian Rusyn: не (ne), нї (nji)

Ukrainian: не (ne)

Old Novgorodian: не (ne)

South Slavic:

Old Church Slavonic:

Old Cyrillic script: не (ne)

Glagolitic script: ⱀⰵ (ne)

Bulgarian: не (ne)

Macedonian: не (ne)

Serbo-Croatian:

Cyrillic script: не

Latin: ne

Slovene: nȅ, ne (tonal orthography)

West Slavic:

Old Czech: ne
Czech: ne

Old Polish: nie
Polish: nie
Silesian: niy

Old Slovak: nie

Pannonian Rusyn: нє (nje)

Slovak: nie

Pomeranian:

Kashubian: nié

Slovincian: njê

Sorbian:

Lower Sorbian: ně, nje-

Upper Sorbian: ně, nje-

From Proto-Balto-Slavic *ne, from Proto-Indo-European *ne.


ne

Latvian: ne

Lithuanian: nè

Proto-Slavic: *ne (see there for further descendants)


à

initial interrogative particle on a question


à

Hết đảy mí à?

Pây liê̱u mí à?


à

À chư̱ dá.


à

LL-Q9199 (vie)-Jessica Nguyen (Pamputt)-à.wav

Thế à?

Cháu mới về à?

Nhóm mày có bốn người thôi à?

There's only four members in your group, isn't there?


với

Cognate with Muong Bi pỡi.
Probably related as etymology 1, as prepositions in Vietnamese are most often originally verbals.
The form vuối used to enjoy widespread usage in both Northern and Southern dialects, but is now completely obsolete. This form might be the diphthongized equivalent of vói (“to stretch out, to reach out”) mentioned above.

LL-Q9199 (vie)-Jessica Nguyen (Pamputt)-với.wav

Cho con đi với.

Mày rảnh làm dùm bố với.

If you're free, how 'bout give your old man a hand?

at the end of a sentence, indicates a request for inclusion or help


ei

From Proto-Finnic *e-, from the Proto-Uralic *e-. Cognates include Finnish ei and Estonian ei.


tu

Pronunciation spelling of to, representing African-American Vernacular English.


tu

C’est-tu possible ?


tu

Tu Janek!

(colloquial, telephony) used by the speaker to introduce themselves on the telephone; speaking

used by the speaker to indicate they are thinking

(colloquial) expressive particle, usually of anger

(colloquial) particle of uncertainty of success on the speaker's part


lava

From Proto-Polynesian *lawa. Cognates include Hawaiian lawa and Samoan lava.

Expresses exclusiveness of the preceding word; just, only

Intensifies the preceding word; just (the same), right (now)

Forms a reflexive from the preceding personal pronoun; -self


ar

(UK, West Country, West Midlands) Alternative form of arr


ar

(Manglish, Singlish) Alternative form of ah (question particle)


ar

except of past autonomous forms (triggers-lenition)

an

used with non-past tenses and in the past tense of some irregular verbs

Ar chuala tú mé?

Níl a fhios agam ar chas sé an t-amhrán.

I don’t know if/whether he sang the song.

Ar ól an cat an bainne?

Ar cuireadh an síol?

Used to form direct and indirect questions

Ar mhúinteoir tú?

Used to form direct and indirect copular questions; used before consonants


ar

head

ar (copular form used before consonants and nouns beginning with vowels; triggers lenition in the past/conditional)

in the past (triggers-lenition)
conditional (triggers-lenition)

an fear ar múinteoir a mhac

an fear ar iascaire a mhac

Introduces an indirect relative clause; present/future tense

an fear ar mhúinteoir a mhac

Introduces an indirect relative clause; past/conditional tense

Ar mhaith leat cupán tae?

Níl a fhios agam ar mhaith léi cupán tae.

I don’t know if she would like a cup of tea.

Introduces a direct or indirect interrogative; past/conditional tense


ar

ar (triggers lenition except of past autonomous forms; used only in the past tense of regular and some irregular verbs)

an chathaoir ar shuigh an gasúr air

an cailín ar ól a cat an bainne

an gort ar cuireadh an síol ann

a

used with non-past tenses and with the past of some irregular verbs


po

From Proto-Albanian *apā, from Proto-Indo-European *h₁é (“then, at that time”). Compare German ob (“if, whether”), Dutch of (“or, whether, but”), English if.
According to Brian D. Joseph, it is a difficult word with unclear root. Hamp claims origin from Proto-Indo-European *pest (“so”)

der

Used with the present and imperfect tense of a verb to show a continuous action.
 It corresponds to the English "be + gerund" formation.


po

Borrowed from Macedonian по- (po-) or dialectal Serbo-Croatian.

-er, more; forms comparative adjectives and adverbs.

follows the definite article to form the superlative


po

Dagos po kamo.

Ma, maduman po ako sa simbahan.

(formal, polite) marks respect toward the person the speaker is addressing


po

Popili smo svi po čašicu rakije.

korak po korak

jedan po jedan

triput po satu

Svi smo dobili po jabuku.

(+ accusative case or nominative case) denoting distribution and succession; by, per, each, apiece


po

From Proto-Malayo-Polynesian *puəq. Compare Malay empu, Indonesian empu, Old Javanese mpu. Also possibly from clipping of poon (“lord”).

Tuloy po kayo.

Pupunta po ako sa simbahan, Inay.


ti

From est-il (literally “is it?”). Compare Canadian French tu.


ti

Gũtema na kanua ti gũtema na rũhiũ

Cutting with a mouth is not cutting with a knife.


ti

Mo ti ṣe é tán.

Wọn ò tí ì ka ìwé tí olùkọ́ fún wọn.

They have not read the book that the teacher gave them.

Marks the perfective aspect, for actions that are completed.


pop

Shichʼįʼ nił pop!


pat

Probably derived from Proto-Indo-European *pótis (“ruler; husband”), taking an archaic meaning of "self", with semantic shift "self" > "same" > "very". Compare also Hittite [script needed] (-pat).

čia pat

iš pat dugno

dabar pat

iki pat saulėlydžio

tas pat žmogus

tokia pat spalva

the same color (literally, “just such a color”)


ando (romanization)
siglum (romanization)


la

From Cantonese 啦 (laa¹). Doublet of lah.

Sleep la! ― [You should] go to bed.

Eat shit la you! ― You're going to hell! (calque of 食屎啦你！)

Placed at the end of a sentence in imperatives making it sound more like a request than an order.

ok la ― not bad; good enough


la

(Singlish, Manglish) Alternative form of lah


la

Forms a first-person ot third-person imperative.


sì

From Latin sīc est (“so it is”). Cognates include Italian sì and Spanish sí.


way

Way, yay, wewiib enda-gizhigaawan iniw ininaatigoon.

Goodness gracious, hurry, the maples are running just fast.


pa

From Proto-Albanian *apa, from Proto-Indo-European *h₂epó (“off, away”). Cognate to Messapic [script needed] (apa, “from, out of, by”), Ancient Greek ἀπό (apó, “away, off”), Sanskrit अप (apá).

cog

Pa më thuaj

(before imperatives) attenuates a command or suggestion


pa

Common South Slavic; compare Slovene pa, Bulgarian па (pa). See also pa-.

Pa?

Pa dobro!

Pa što je s tobom?

Pa i ne baš

Pa što onda?

Pa i moja baba već zna da to nije istina!

Even my grandma knows that that is not true!


pa

Alora pa, ka biša gvera, ka pa je rivala kurta nasa ova gvera, mi, tuna žene aš ljuda, te ljuda veča… ka bihu veča zdrave – nò? mahu sa po hranit.

2010, Luigi Peca, La guerre à Acquaviva:

Well then, during the war, when this war came close to us, we, all the women and men, the men (who were) more… who were healthier – you know? had to hide themselves.


pa

Old Japanese: は (pa)

Japanese: は (wa)

Proto-Ryukyuan: *wa

Northern Ryukyuan:

Kikai: や (ya)

Kunigami: や (ya)

Northern Amami Ōshima: や (ya)

Okinawan: や (ya)

Okinoerabu: は (wa)

Southern Amami Ōshima: や (ya)

Tokunoshima: や (ya)

Yoron: や (ya)

Southern Ryukyuan:

Miyako: あ (a)

Yaeyama: あ (a)

Yonaguni: や (ya), あ (a)


se

From Dutch zijn, z'n (“his, its”). An Afrikaans innovation is the use of se regardless of the number or gender of the possessor, which may be due to a merger with the Dutch genitive suffix -s as well as, perhaps, the adjective suffix -s, -sch.

Hierdie is my ouma se huis.

follows a noun to indicate that this noun possesses that which follows, much like English 's