se

Sometimes thought to have been inherited from Arabic سَ (sa), from سَوْفَ (sawfa). However, it is more likely that the similarity is entirely coincidental and that Maltese se(r) is merely a shortened form of sejjer.


se

се лежи вигань милошевиꙉь

1404, anonymous, Kočerin tablet, (Please provide the book title or journal name):


nghe

LL-Q9199 (vie)-Jessica Nguyen (Pamputt)-nghe.wav

From Proto-Vietic *ŋɛː. Cognate with Toum ŋɛː¹. Compare Chong [Kasong] tŋeː.

Về nhớ làm bài nghe!

Don't forget to do your homework when you return (home).

(colloquial, chiefly Central Vietnam and Southern Vietnam) okay?


tau

Used to indicate the exclusiveness of the following noun or pronoun; just, only, merely


tau

Used to indicate the focus lies on the following noun; concerning, regarding


tau

Used to indicate that the action of the following verb is beginning; starting to; beginning to


tok

Hatuk nakni aiya achumpa tok.

(literally, “That man go town (past tense).”)

particle used to express actions in the past.


sí

yes (word used to indicate agreement or acceptance)


sí

yes (affirmation; commonly used to respond affirmatively to a question)


sí

yes (commonly used to respond affirmatively to a question)

"Les gusta el chocolate, ¿verdad?" "A mí sí, pero a él no."

"You both like chocolate, right?" "I do, but he doesn't."

A syntactic marker for emphasis or to replace an earlier verb, allowing the speaker to avoid repeating the verb, both similar to English do

(Spain) hello (used to answer the telephone)


question mark

All real discovery comes from the ?, the basic curiosity and acceptance of, “Well, we think subatomic particles might exist, at least they have a tendency to exist, but we really don’t know for sure, you know, question mark?”

1983, Voices: The Art and Science of Psychotherapy, volumes 19–20, Albany, New York: American Academy of Psychotherapists, page 12:

So I see one movement towards a new kind of society, a new kind of mobility. So am I right, question mark?

2014 October 8, Mirosław Grochowski, “Supporting mobility: Development of bikepaths in Warsaw Metropolitan Area”, in Proceedings: METREX Brussels Autumn Conference, Brussels, page 85:

And is it like open? Can like anybody join, question mark?

2022 November 11, Amal Hussein, “A very !important lesson” (13:00 from the start), in JS Party, episode 251, spoken by Amal Hussein, Changelog, retrieved 2024-09-21:

(colloquial) Final interrogative particle, expressing second-guessing, usually in an exaggerated, rising tone.


volt

From the same Proto-Finno-Ugric *wole- or *woli- as Finnish and Estonian olla. Compare similarities with Old Hungarian vola, later vala (same meaning).

Then the old woman picks it up [literally, “who had brought it”] and rushes out to the husband! She puts on a big grin on her face and tells him straight out,

1880 (translation), 411 BC (original), János Arany (translator), Aristophanes (original), A nők ünnepe (Thesmophoriazusae). English translation: 2007, George Theodoridis. A vén gaz asszony meg, ki hozta volt, ¶ Fut vigyorogva a férjhez s kiáltja

(archaic) Used after a past-tense verb form to express past perfect.


maní

head

maní (modal, Perso-Arabic spelling منیۡ)


té

To té paʼlé gra. / To te pale gra.

You spoke with an accent. (literally, “You had spoken thick.”)

Si mo té koné ça....

No té gin in nòt fiy.

(with stative verbs) simple past tense marker

Li té brav.


tod

Proto-Brythonic: *to

Middle Welsh: do

Welsh: do

Old Irish: tó

From Proto-Indo-European *tód, a demonstrative repurposed as an affirmative particle.


sie

expresses that the action is done without restriction, freely


si

East Slavic:

Old East Slavic: си (si)

Belarusian: -сь (-sʹ)

Ukrainian: -сь (-sʹ)

South Slavic:

Bulgarian: си (si)

Slovene: -si

West Slavic:

Old Czech: -si

Czech: -si

Kashubian: -s

Old Polish: -ś

Polish: -ś

Slovak: -si

Slovincian: -sz

From *sь (“this”). Compare synonymous Russian -то (-to) ultimately from *tъ (“that”).

Indicates that something is indefinite or uncertain.


je

Mboapy'i je oo jepe raka'e.

indicates hearsay or indirect source of information.


je

From Old Frisian jē, from Proto-West Germanic *jā. Cognates include West Frisian ja and German ja. Doublet of jee and jä.

Used to intensify a statement to express it is a known fact; obviously, of course


je

well? now? (used to call attention to a question)


ed

覆ed [Hong Kong Cantonese] ― fuk¹ dat⁴ [Jyutping] ― replied

fol ed [Hong Kong Cantonese] ― fo¹ dat⁴ [Jyutping] ― followed

J ed [Hong Kong Cantonese] ― zei¹ dat⁴ [Jyutping] ― jerked off; wanked off

(Hong Kong Cantonese, neologism) Used to denote an action which has been completed.


net

From ne (“no”) + a particle -t of indeterminate origin, perhaps formed similarly to bèt (“but, yet”).

net jis verkė

jis net verkė


nein

Middle High German: nein

German: nein

Yiddish: ניין (neyn)

A contraction of ni + ein. Compare Old English nān.

[…] Are you prophet? and he responded no […]

c. 825, Tatian, Diatessaron, translation, Chapter 13, verse 20. […] Bist thu wīzago? inti her antlingota nein […]


lah

From Malay lah, Cantonese 啦 (laa1) or Hokkien 啦 (--la). Doublet of la.

Don’t do it lah, it’s not worth it. ― Disapproval

Hurry up, lah! ― Impatience

Don’t know lah […] this is very hard to say.

1978, Leong Choon Cheong, Youth in the Army, Singapore: Federal Publications, →OCLC, page 75:

Placed at the end of a sentence to accentuate the mood or attitude of the speaker.

You won’t drown one lah. The water is very shallow.

Don’t worry lah. We’ll meet the deadline.

1999, Alfian Sa'at, Corridor, Singapore: SNP Editions, →OCLC, page 15:

Placed at the end of a sentence to convey reassurance or solidarity.

Go and ask if they can help you lah!

They’re not wrong lah...

Just write it down lah, so you don’t forget.

Asserts that something is clear, obvious or straightforward.

(imperative) Used to tone down a suggestion or invitation to do something.

These shoes are too small lah.

No need to count lah. I’m sure the number is right.

Used after an assertion to reinforce its authoritativeness.

(less common) Used in persuasive assertions.

He teach them how to cook lah, learn computer lah... […]

2010, Haresh Sharma, Those Who Can't, Teach, Epigram Books, Act I, scene ii:

(less common) Follows each item in a list of examples.

No lah, no lah. ― Sarcastic reply

(in fixed expressions) Used sarcastically when stating the obvious.


lah

→ English: lah (or directly from Cantonese 啦 (laa¹))

Saya ada di sini lah.

Kau ni bodoh betul lah!

Diam lah!

Pergi sana lah!

(informal) Final particle indicating an imperative, reassurance or emphasis.


か

お元気ですか。

どうすればいいかわからない。

final interrogative particle, similar to a question mark ("?").

これか、それか、どっちか選んでよ。

particle marking alternatives in a list; "or"

行くか知らない。

行くかと思いますが……


क्या

Inherited from Sauraseni Prakrit 𑀓𑀺𑀁 (kiṃ), 𑀓𑀺 (ki), from Sanskrit किम् (kim, “what, which”). Compare Punjabi ਕੀ (kī), Gujarati કિયું (kiyũ), Marathi की (kī), Bengali কী (ki), Assamese কি (ki) or Kashmiri کیاہ (kyah).

inh+

क्या आप कुछ पीएँगे?


کیا

کْیا (canonical)
kyā (romanization)
क्या (Hindi)

Inherited from Sauraseni Prakrit 𑀓𑀺𑀁 (kiṃ), 𑀓𑀺 (ki), from Sanskrit किम् (kim, “what, which”), probably influenced by the alternative nominative form का (kā). Doublet of کہ (ke, ki). Compare Punjabi ਕੀ (kī)/کی (kī), Gujarati કિયું (kiyũ), Marathi की (kī), Bengali কি (ki), Assamese কি (ki), Kashmiri کیاہ (kyah).

کْیا آپ یَہاں رہتے ہَیں؟
kyā āp yahā̃ rehte ha͠i?
Do you live here?

literally, “[question marker] you here living are?”


zu

From a spelling merger of two interrelated adpreps: 1.) Middle High German ze, from Old High German za, zi, from Proto-Germanic *ta; and 2.) Middle High German zuo, from Old High German zuo, from Proto-Germanic *tō. A distinction between both words has widely been retained in dialects, and also to some degree in modern spoken German (see pronunciation section below). Cognate with Silesian East Central German zu (contractions with the definite article: zum m or n, zur f); Dutch te, toe; Old Saxon tō; English to, too.

etwas zu essen


yogh

Yogh tru lilith.


yi

Hit mo jocang yi myócò nyit.

There are many children here. (Quoting Luk, p. 119)

Used to mark the plural of a noun depicting a human being.


ไหม

From contraction of หรือ (rʉ̌ʉ, “or”) + ไม่ (mâi, “not”). Compare Southern Thai ม่าย.

com

หรือ (rʉ̌ʉ, “or”) + ไม่ (mâi, “not”)

คุณเป็นนักท่องเที่ยวใช่ไหม

คุณพูดภาษาเยอรมันได้ไหม


nee

From Dutch nee, from Middle Dutch neen, nee, from Old Dutch *nēn.


nee

Nee uss y fer lhee?

Cha nee eshyn ren eh.


keen

keen (accusative masculine negative nominative)
keen (accusative feminine negative nominative)
keen (accusative negative nominative)
keen (accusative negative nominative plural)
keene (accusative negative nominative plural)
keem (dative masculine negative)
keener (dative feminine negative)
keem (dative negative)
keene (dative negative plural)

Ich sin keen Becker.

Du host keen Grund fer sowas se denke.


keen

keen (accusative masculine negative nominative)
keng (accusative feminine negative nominative)
keen (accusative negative neuter nominative)
keng (accusative negative nominative plural)
kengem (dative masculine negative)
kenger (dative feminine negative)
kengem (dative negative neuter)
kengen (dative negative plural)

From Middle High German kein, from the merger of dechein, dehein ("someone; anyone", from Old High German dehein) and Middle High German nechein, nehein ("not any", from Old High German nihein).

gloss

"someone; anyone", from Old High German <i class="Latn mention" lang="goh">dehein</i>

"not any", from Old High German <i class="Latn mention" lang="goh">nihein</i>


dem

mi fren dem

(postpositive) when placed after a noun phrase, the particle marks it as plural


nach

From Old Irish nach, from Proto-Celtic *nekʷe, a combination of Proto-Indo-European *ne (negative particle) and *-kʷe (“and”); compare Latin neque.

der

Nach bhfuil ocras ort?

Chonaic mé í, nach bhfaca?


nach

Nach maith leat bainne?

Níl a fhios agam an miste dó nó nach miste.

I don’t know if it matters to him or not.

isn’t...?/whether/if it is... (introduces negative questions, both direct and indirect)

an bhean nach múinteoir í

an bhean nach maith léi bainne

who/which isn’t... (introduces negative relative clauses, both direct and indirect)


nach

Appendix:Old Irish affixed pronouns#Infixed pronouns

Alternative form of ná (negative particle used with the imperative) used before an infixed pronoun


ny

nyns

used before forms of bos that start with a vowel


هل

ar-particle

هَلْ • (hal)

Univerbation of هَـ (ha-, now interrogative أَ (ʔa)) + لـ (l-, affirmative particle, found as لَـ (la-, “truly”) and the exhortative لِـ (li-) the vowel of which disappears between فَـ (fa-) or وَ (wa) and a following verb).

univerbation

now interrogative <i class="Arab mention" lang="ar">أَ</i> (ʔa)

هَلْ فَتَحْتَ النَّافِذَةَ؟

هَلِ ٱلْوَلَدُ فِي ٱلْمَدْرَسَةِ؟

هَلْ أَنْتَ مِصْرِيٌّ؟

هَلْ أَدُلُّكُمْ عَلَى تِجَارَةٍ تُنْجِيكُم مِنْ عَذَابٍ أَلِيمٍ

Shall I guide you to a transaction that will save you from a painful punishment?

hal ʔadullukum ʕalā tijāratin tunjīkum min ʕaḏābin ʔalīmin

فَإِذَا أَرَادَ الْمُرِيدُ أَنَّ عُقُولَ الْعُقَلَاءِ لَمْ تَصِلْ إلَى مَعْرِفَةِ مِثْلِ هَذِهِ الْأُمُورِ فَهَذَا صَحِيحٌ وَأَمَّا إذَا أَرَادَ أَنَّ الْعُقَلَاءَ لَيْسَ عِنْدَهُمْ عِلْمٌ وَلَا يَقِينٌ بَلْ حَيْرَةٌ وَرَيْبٌ فَهَذَا بَاطِلٌ قَطْعًا. وَمَا ذُكِرَ عَنْ ذِي النُّونِ " فِي هَذَا الْبَابِ مَعَ أَنَّ ذَا النُّونِ قَدْ وَقَعَ مِنْهُ كَلَامٌ أَنْكَرَ عَلَيْهِ وَعَزَّرَهُ الْحَارِثُ بْنُ مِسْكِينٍ وَطَلَبَهُ الْمُتَوَكِّلُ إلَى بَغْدَادَ وَاتُّهِمَ بِالزَّنْدَقَةِ وَجَعَلَهُ النَّاسُ مَنْ الْفَلَاسِفَةِ فَمَا أَدْرِي هَلْ قَالَ هَذَا أَمْ لَا؟

13th-14th century CE, Taqī al-Dīn ʾAḥmad ibn Taymiyyah, مَجْمُوع الْفَتَاوَى [majmūʕ al-fatāwā, The Collection of Rulings], volume 11, Medina, Saudi Arabia: King Fahd Complex, published 2004, →ISBN, pages 392–393:

If it is meant that the minds of right-minded men have not attained knowledge of such things, then yes, this is true. If, however, it is meant that not even right-minded men have knowledge of nor are certain about anything but are rather in doubt and perplexity, this is absolutely false, together with what Ḏū al-Nūn said on this matter. Ḏū al-Nūn himself, though, did say things for which he was reproached and chastised by al-Ḥāriṯ ibn Miskīn, and he was sent for by al-Mutawakkil and was charged with heresy and has been deemed to be among the Philosophers, and so I do not know whether he said this or not.

indicates an exclusive disjunction with أَمْ (ʔam, “or”), as in alternative questions


raw

Masaya raw siya.


آیا

آیا کسی بدینجا خواهد آمد؟. (classical pronunciation)


nie

Inherited from Proto-Slavic *ne. First attested in the 14th century.


nie

See the etymology of the corresponding lemma form.


sini, i bɛ na taa sugu jɔ


Bilog na bulan

connects consonant ending noun or adjective to a noun or adjective that it modifies


Possibly a contraction of nanu (“what”). Compare Tagalog 'no, Japanese な (na), ね (ne).

Makanini namu siguru na?

Nokarin nakaman munta na?

(informal, mild emphatic) sentence-final particle indicating emotion or mild emphasis


Gũtema na kanua ti gũtema na rũhiũ.

To cut with a mouth is not to cut with a knife.

Ikinya na thĩ itiaganaga.

The foot and the earth cannot help meeting.

Wega uumaga na mũciĩ.

Kanua njero, na mũciĩ ndũkomeka nĩ heho.

The mouth is sweet, but the house is too cold to lie at.


Cudí ná!

Vai racolê nâ!


Giminikwe na?

Gigii-anokii na bijiinaago?

but: Giwiisin ina?

Question marker for yes/no questions. It is always placed after the first word in the sentence. If the first word ends in a vowel, use the particle na; if it ends in a consonant, use ina.


Saterland Frisian: noa

From Proto-West Germanic *nai, equivalent to a blend of ne (“not”) + ā (“ever”). Akin to Old English nā.


forms the negative of verbs and adjectives [with -i]

[…]naipotareîmixoéne[…]

1555, Joseph of Anchieta, chapter VII, in Arte de grammatica da lingoa mais vſada na coſta do Braſil (overall work in Portuguese), Coimbra: Antonio de Mariz, published 1595, page 34v:


Na bruidhinn!

don’t (particle used to introduce a negative imperative; triggers h-prothesis of a following vowel)

An do rinn iad e Disathairne? – Cha do rinn na!
Did they do it on Saturday? – They certainly did not!

particle used to emphasise a negative reply to a question


Univerbation of an (interrogative particle) + do (past tense particle)

univ

Na rinn thu sin?

(chiefly Lewis, colloquial) marks an interrogative in the past tense


A man disi na wan bigidagu.


Interrogative particle; indicates a yes-no question. Placed at the end of the sentence.


(Bình Định, Phú Yên) interrogative particle


From Proto-Celtic *nekʷe, ultimately from Proto-Indo-European *ne (negative particle) + *-kʷe (“and”). Cognate with Old Irish nach and Latin neque.

(literary) don’t (with verbs in the imperative mood)


From Middle English na, no, from nan (“none”), from Old English nān. Cognates include English no and Scots nae.


уу

final interrogative particle that creates yes-no questions


nō

very, quite, indeed Used to intensify the preceding word


nō

From Proto-Polynesian *noa. Cognates include Hawaiian nō and Maori noa.

Used to express limitation; only, just, the only


mano

Anuta: mano (“thousand, ten thousand”)

Rapa Nui: mano (“thousand”)

Emae: mano (“thousand”)

desc

Hawaiian: mano (“4000, many, multitude”)

Kapingamarangi: mano (“thousand”)

Luang: mango (“thousand”)

Mangarevan: mano (“thousand”)

South Marquesan: mano (“2000”)

North Marquesan: mano (“4000”)

Maori: mano (“thousand, multitude”)

Niuean: mano (“plenty, many”)

Nuguria: mano (“ten thousand”)

Nukuoro: mano (“thousand, 100”)

Penrhyn: mano (“2000”)

Pukapukan: mano (“thousand”)

Rarotongan: mano (“thousand”)

Rennellese: mano (“thousand”)

Samoan: mano (“thousand, large number”)

Sikaiana: mano (“thousand”)

Tahitian: mano (“1000, 2000”)

Takuu: mano (“ten thousand, large number”)

Tikopia: mano (“thousand, large number”)

Tokelauan: mano/mānō (“uncountable, countless”)

Tongan: mano (“ten thousand”)

Tuamotuan: mano (“1000, 2000, 20000”)

Tuvaluan: mano (“thousand”)


dea

Alternative form of de'a (“still, again, at the same time or place”)


tik

Traditionally considered a shortening of tíek (“so much”) or tiektaĩ (“not only”), though the phonological processes involved are unclear.

Kõ tìk ìmasi, tàs sẽkasi.

He succeeds at whatever he puts his hand to.

(in conjunction with question words) -ever, no matter …


tik

From Proto-Baltic [Term?]. Compare Lithuanian tìk, Latvian tik, however Old Prussian ter (“only”).

tylko — tik


ter

"Jesus Christ! Was my folks refined. My mam she wouldn't think-a lettin' us young'uns call a pee pot a pee pot. A chamber's what she called it... And by God! Us young'uns had ter call the pee pot a chamber or git our God damn necks wrang."

1946, Elizabeth Metzger Howard, Before the Sun Goes Down, page 31:

‘Do you mean ter tell me,’ he growled at the Dursleys, ‘that this boy – this boy! – knows nothin’ abou’ – about ANYTHING?’

1997, J.K. Rowling, Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone, section IV:


ja

From Middle High German ja, from Old High German ja, jā, from Proto-West Germanic *jā, from Proto-Germanic *ja. Cognate with German ja, English yea.


ja

Ultimately from a Germanic language, from Proto-Germanic *ja (compare Swedish ja and German ja). Cognates include Finnish jaa and Estonian jah, jaa.

Onok se maa teil?
- Ja, ono.

1936, V. I. Junus, N. A. Iljin, Inkeroisin keelen oppikirja alkuşkouluja vart (toine osa), Leningrad: Riikin Ucebno-pedagogiceskoi Izdateljstva, page 42:


ja

(Canada, United States, New Zealand) yes


ja

Ja Mulejja!

Ja iblah!

Stagħnejt, ja Qamar,
dal-lejl bil-poeżija
tar-realtà.

1998, Anton Buttigieg, “Lill-Qamar”, in Żibeġ u Boċċi:


ja

desctree

Proto-West Germanic: *jā
Old English: ġēa, iā; ġē
Middle English: ȝea, ye, ya
Scots: ya, yea, ay, aye, yo
English: ya, yea, yo
Old Frisian: jē, gē; jā, jē, jō
Saterland Frisian: ja, jee
West Frisian: ja
Old Saxon: jā, giā; ge, gi, gie, gia
Middle Low German: ja, jâ
German Low German: ja
Old Dutch: jā
Middle Dutch: jâ
Dutch: ja
Afrikaans: ja
Limburgish: jao
Old High German: jā; joh, ioh
Middle High German: ja, jā; joch
Alemannic German: ja, jaa, jòò, jä
Bavarian:
Cimbrian: ja
Viennese: jå
German: ja (standard); jo, joa (informal); joch (dialectal)
Polish: jo
Luxembourgish: jo
Yiddish: יאָ (yo)

Old Norse: já
Icelandic: já
Faroese: ja
Norwegian Nynorsk: ja
Norwegian Bokmål: ja
Old Swedish: iā
Swedish: ja
Danish: ja, jo

Gothic: 𐌾𐌰 (ja), 𐌾𐌰𐌹 (jai)

Ideophonic for paralingual expression of agreement, compare typologically Arabic يَه (yah) developed with the exact same meaning at the Yemenite Red Sea coast.


pea

From Proto-Polynesian *pea. Cognates include Tongan pea and Samoan pea.

continuous action
continuous aspect#English

Indicates a continuous action; keep on, continuously

Indicates that the action was performed in spite of what preceded; nevertheless, still


né

so I saw this girl né, and I wanted to talk to her...


né

From Proto-Norse ᚾᛁ (ni), from Proto-Germanic *ne, from Proto-Indo-European *ne (“not”). This simple negation has disappeared in the later Scandinavian languages, including Classical Old Norse (although it is seen in the oldest poems, and in fossilized forms like nǫkkurr, neinn). It is found in the other older Germanic languages: Old English ne, Old Frisian ne, ni, Old Saxon ne, ni, Old Dutch ne, Old High German ni, Gothic 𐌽𐌹 (ni).


omen

Uncertain, perhaps from Latin ōmen (“omen”), but the semantic shift is problematic. If it's not a borrowing, from something akin to Proto-Basque *oben.

Eguraldia hobetu omen da.


ken

Question particle used in yes-or-no questions.


ken

> Javanese: ꦏꦺꦤ꧀ (kèn) (inherited)

particle before a noun (categorical or proper) denoting a person of some rank


doo

doo ... da

doo yáʼátʼééh da

doo yáʼátʼéehii

doo naalnishii

doo bénáshniihígíí

With a nominalizer, forms a negative noun phrase:

Doo naashnishgóó níká adeeshwoł.

With a verb + -góó, forms a negative conditional:


nei

From Proto-Nuclear Polynesian *nei. Cognates include Hawaiian nei and Samoan nei.


da

da naa!


da

From Proto-Slavic *da, probably old imperative of the word dȁti, itself from Proto-Indo-European *deh₃- (“to give”).

Je li tako? Da!

Da li ste žedni?

Reci mi da li je to istina?

Da se nisi usudio!

Da Bog dao!

God willing! (literally, “If God gives (it).”)

Da počnemo!

Used in various phrases, expressing wishes, commands etc.


da

Samarqandda yashayman.

Soat uchda boraman.

locative case marker, used to show the time or the place of an action; equivalent to English in or at


da

Probably instrumental case of *do (“to, up to, until”), from Proto-Indo-European *doh₁ (“thus, like so”). Similar to Proto-Slavic *ta (“and so, thereby”) from Proto-Slavic *to (“so”). Cognate with Ancient Greek δή (dḗ, “even, indeed”), Proto-Germanic *tō, English too.
Technically, could only reflect the collective case of Proto-Indo-European *dʰe (“locative particle”), similar to Proto-Slavic *ba, from Proto-Indo-European *bʰe (“instrumental particle”).

der

yes, yeah (a term used to indicate general agreement)


mau

he mau lio

kēlā mau hale

ko lākou mau kūpuna

Plural marker of nouns, used after he, determiners, and numerals.


tali

From Proto-Algonquian *taši (“there, in such a place”).

inh

Tehim në shè tali òk ulepënàk.

There are strawberries here, and onions.

Mahtakèn yu tali.

Xaheli Lënapeyok ahpuwàk yu tali.


eski

Marks a question when placed at the beginning of a sentence


maa

Mo máa lọ sí Èkó l'ọdún tí ó ń bọ̀.

Ẹ máa rọra o!

Be careful! (literally, “Keep being careful!”)

Used to express the durative tense in commands.


по

head

по́- • (pó-)

Корабите са по-бавни от самолетите.

Този филм е по-интересен.

Трябва да ходя по-бързо.

used as a prefix to form comparative for adjectives and adverbs, more


по

По́ я обичам!

Той е по́ юнак от теб.

used for nouns, verbs and other parts of speech to form a comparative, more

Областта е по́ на север.

used before prepositions to form a comparative, more, further


по

Попили смо сви по чашицу ракије.

корак по корак

један по један

трипут по сату

Cви смо добили по јабуку.

(+ accusative case or nominative case) denoting distribution and succession; by, per, each, apiece


-é

Nem tudom, hogy sikerül-é.

(dialectal, chiefly Transylvania) Alternative form of -e (“whether, if”) Tag for yes/no questions, always written with a hyphen before.


ale

used at the beginning of a sentence; similar in meaning to the English "hey, not so fast", especially when used multiple times


ale

Used to express disapproval or wish to change the subject.

Used to present contradictory content; but

Used when the speaker wishes the listener addresses the previous statement.


ale

Polish: ale

Silesian: ale

Inherited from Proto-Slavic *ale. By surface analysis, univerbation of a + le. First attested in 1398.

surf

Po wszech drogach byegala..., abi ale z daleka gy gydøcz, moglolybi to bicz, op[r]atrzila (ut procul videret eum, si fieri posset, venientem)

1930 [c. 1455], “Tob”, in Ludwik Bernacki, editor, Biblia królowej Zofii (Biblia szaroszpatacka), 10, 7:

Novo ale (nusper tamen) pod latym Boszego Narodzena MCCCCXXII osmego dyna ckxaszycza lutego... w mescze ploczskem rzeczony Jan chodzyl

1915 [1474], Jan Łoś, editor, Przegląd językowych zabytków staropolskich do r. 1543, Sieradz, page 540:

The meaning of this term is uncertain. Possibilities include:


ale

Inherited from Old Polish ale. By surface analysis, univerbation of a + le. For the particle use, compare Hungarian de.

Ale masz piękną sukienkę!

Ale ta zupa jest dobra!

(colloquial) used at the beginning of a sentence for emphasis

Ale, ale! Jeszcze z tobą nie skończyłem!

Hey, not so fast! I'm not quite done with you yet!

Stary, bo stary, ale mocny.

He very well may be old, but he's still strong.

Trudno bo trudno, ale robi się łatwiej.

It may very well be hard, but it's getting easier.

(with bo) may very well, but, even though, despite


apa

Apa kamu mengerti?


apa

Albanian: pa

From Proto-Indo-European *h₂epó (“away, off”). Cognate to Messapic 𐌀𐌐𐌀 (apa, “from, out of, by”), Ancient Greek ἀπό (apó, “away, off”), Sanskrit अप (apá).


pest

a perfectivizing particle used with verbs


و

See the etymology of the corresponding lemma form.

دستتو بلند کن.


oni

Oni fuom yn proffwydo yn dy enw di?

Byddwch chi yma, oni fyddwch chi?

(colloquial) used to form a tag question


-를

From Middle Korean 를〮/ᄅᆞᆯ〮 (Yale: -lúl/lól), probably a reduplication of 을〮/ᄋᆞᆯ〮 (Yale: -úl/ól). See the main entry for more.

Post-vowel allomorphic form of 을 (-eul, direct object marker).


を

/wo/ → /o/
From Proto-Japonic *wo. Cognate with Okinawan ゆ (yu).

a lengthened vowel may be used instead of を: 手ぇ上げ ― tē agero ― raise your hands

私がリンゴを食べる。

私をリンゴが食べる。

渉險 上往也下左何之伎乎

794, Shin'yaku Kegonkyō Ongi Shiki, page 85:

(with transitive verb) An accusative case particle: a grammatical marker following the direct object of a verb.

席を立つ

A case particle.
(with intransitive verb) away from, off

廊下を走る

街を歩く

北海道を流れる川

地球のまわりを月がまわる。

1908, Natsume Sōseki, Yume Jūya [Ten Nights of Dreaming]:

大空を落ちている間

(with intransitive verb) along, following a specified route, track, orbit, etc.

わざとあめるを、早うものせよかし。

It seems to be a special [invitation], so please go early.

(archaic) A conjunctive particle, usually following the rentaikei of classical inflectible words.

Resultative conjunction: expresses reason or cause.

我身(わがみ)だに知(し)らざりしを、怎(いか)でか人(ひと)に知(し)らるべき。

我を待つと君が濡れけむあしひきの山のしづくにならましものを

A o matsu to / Kimi ga nureken / Ashihiki no / Yama no shizuku ni / naramashi mono o

You probably got wet while waiting for me; ah, I wish I could become a waterdrop in the mountain.

(archaic, literary) An interjectory particle, expressing sigh or emphasis.


maj

-er, more; forms comparative adjectives and adverbs.

follows the definite article to form the superlative


え

(dated) Alternative form of い (“exclamatory particle”)


ね

Probably related to ない (nai), as negative forms cross-linguistically are commonly used as confirmation particles.

あなたは頭がいいね。

格好いいですね。

「ダメ。」「だよねー」

(after a phrase) emphasis and question marker particle; asks for confirmation; right?; eh?; isn't it, innit?

頑張ってね。

気を付けてくださいね。

(after -te, or sometimes -te kudasai) particle that softens a request, or conveys friendliness; okay?; please?

meaningless filler particle, which may also have a softening effect when introducing information; well...; you see...


わ

あなたの髪は長いわね！

今、行くわ。

知らないわ。

(women's speech, dated) a particle used in the end of sentences to indicate admiration or emotion

何言ってんのか解んねえわ。

(dialectal or men's speech) a particle used in the end of sentences to indicate emphasis


ぜ

Daijirin Daijisen Edo Japanese_particles#ze Kansai ja:松村明

/zo e/ → /zoe/ → /zeː/ → /ze/
Shift via monophthongization of older ぞえ (zoe), in turn from sentence-ending emphatic particle ぞ (zo) and exclamatory or familiar particle え (e).
First dated to 1771. Usage became established in the Edo area, then spread to the Kansai region in the late 1700s.
With the softening effect of particle え (e), the sense was originally somewhat less gruff than using just ぞ (zo). However, in modern usage, this is now generally considered more gruff than ぞ (zo), and usage is restricted to informal masculine speech, either between members of the same group and status, or by a social superior to an inferior.

困った奴だぜ。

(colloquial, men's speech) sentence-ending particle signifying emphasis, used to lightly press one's point, with familiar overtones

そんなにケーキを食べたら太っちまうぜ。

Sonna ni kēki o tabetara futotchimau ze.

(colloquial, men's speech) sentence-ending particle signifying emphasis, used to tell the listener about something in a patronising way


べ

From Kantō, Tōhoku, Hokkaidō Japanese 可(べ)い (bei), from Classical Japanese 可(べ)し (beshi), via regular shift from Classical ク活用(かつよう) (ku-katsuyō) adjective to modern -i adjective.

明日は学校だがら朝早く起きんべ。

Ashita wa gakkō da gara asa hayaku okin be.

I'll get up early for tomorrow's school.

大したことでもねえべ。

(dialectal Kanto, Tōhoku, Hokkaidō) sentence-ending particle indicating volition or supposition


は

Daijirin
Japanese particles#wa
Japanese script reform
Man'yōshū

/pa/ → /ɸa/ → /wa/
From Old Japanese. Used in the oldest Japanese writings, including the Man'yōshū finished some time after 759 CE. Ultimately from Proto-Japonic *pa.
The particle was excluded from the post-war script reform, rather than changed to わ (wa), which would be more phonetically accurate.

これは犬です。

This [the topic, about which we are speaking] is a dog.

今日は雨ですね。

今日は雨が降っています。

unique topic marker, often untranslatable

中田は？

じゃ、意味は？

what about, where is (used without a predicate to ask for more information about something)

そう思ってはいないでしょうか。

勝てるとは思ってはいない

現れては消えた

1975, “眠れぬ夜”, 小田和正 (lyrics), performed by オフコース:

愛のない毎日は 自由な毎日
誰も僕を責めたり できはしないさ

ai no nai mainichi wa jiyū na mainichi
dare mo boku o semetari deki wa shinai sa

Days without love are days of freedom
No one can pester me anymore

Inserted between two verbs for emphasis.


と

⟨to₂⟩ → */tə/ → /to/
From Old Japanese, from Proto-Japonic *tə.

僕と行きたい？

あなたと一緒に行きます。

と can be attached to both nouns, but this is no longer common. Compare Korean 과 (-gwa), which also used to have this phenomenon.

彼女は英語とフランス語（と）が話せる。

Kanojo wa eigo to furansugo (to) ga hanaseru.

それとこれ。

犬と猫（と）を私は飼っている。

「お願い！」と、彼女は言った。

なんだと！？

これはダメだと思います。

小川が集めて大河となる。

Small streams gather and become big rivers.

氷と化す

a particle following a phrase or clause describing the detail, content or manner of the action, similar to a complement.

勉強すると分かる。

円高が進むと、日本経済が混乱する。

Endaka ga susumu to, Nihon keizai ga konran suru.

If the high yen continues, the Japanese economy will be in dire straits.

二と三を掛けると六になる。

If you multiply two and three, they make six.

if (when appended to a dictionary-form verb and followed by a present-tense sentence)

マンハッタンへ行くと、大学の友達に会った。

Manhattan e iku to, daigaku no tomodachi ni atta.

When I went to Manhattan, I met a friend from university.

when (when appended to a dictionary form verb and followed by a past-tense sentence)


ぞ

From Old Japanese. Previously unvoiced as so until the Nara period.

やるぞ！

これで済まないぞ！

よそで飯を盗んで食うたりするんじゃないぞ

yoso de meshi o nusunde kūtari suru n ja nai zo

You may not steal and eat food in other houses, ever.

(colloquial, men's speech) a particle used at the end of sentences, which indicates certainty, emphasis or even a warning or a threat.

何処ぞで歌うたふ声が聞えるやうやのう

dokozo de uta utau koe ga kikoeru yō ya nō

It feels like we can hear voice of singers somewhere.

a particle used as a suffix to an interrogative word to mark it indefinite.

単純化を貴ぶ精神が無くして、なんぞ、この種のことが起きて来ようぞ。

Tanjunka o tōtobu seishin ga nakushite, nanzo, kono shu no koto ga okite koyō zo.

Without the spirit of treasuring simplification, how could this kind of things ever happen.

(archaic) a particle which makes a question emphasized or rhetorical, used at the end of a sentence or appended to an interrogative word.

これぞ辞典の本当の力だ‼

This is the true power of a dictionary!!

(predicative, men's speech) topic particle used for emphasis


け

Derived in the Heian period from writing the man'yōgana kanji 計 in the cursive sōsho style.

ja-kana-mannyogana-etym

(informal, intimate, sometimes considered dialectal) (question particle)


に

From Old Japanese, from Proto-Japonic *ni.

俺に返せ。

(with nouns)
particle for indirect objects; to

学校にいる。

(with nouns)
particle for location; in, at

銀行に行った。

学校に行く。

(with nouns)
particle for direction; toward, into

the particles へ and に are often interchangeable

though there is a slight difference of connotation

emphasis. へ emphasizes the journey to the destination

entering it. The distinction is not quite the same as between English to and into

に is usually best translated as to because に

can refer to the journey in addition to the arrival

蚊にさされた。

(with nouns)
particle indicating a passive agent; by

７時にね。

It is at seven o'clock. (confirmation of when an event will take place)

(with nouns)
particle indicating a point in time; at

particle used occasionally to replace と when organizing and counting; and

お礼にお菓子を贈る

復讐に殺人を犯す

particle for indicating the emotional reason that one does something; in

映画を見に行く。

寝に帰るだけの部屋

a room only used when coming home to sleep

particle indicating purpose/intent; for; to

Coordinate term: (with い-adjectives) く

確かに


へ

⟨pe₁⟩ → */pʲe/ → /ɸe/ → /we/ → /e/
From Old Japanese. Derives from the noun 辺(へ) (he, “place, general area, vicinity”).

ja-r

日本へようこそ!

銀行へ行った。

トランプ氏勝つ、第45代米大統領へ

Toranpu-shi katsu, dai-yonjūgo-dai Bei-daitōryō e

Trump wins, will be the 45th President of the US

to, towards (indicates a destination or movement toward something)

while に emphasizes the arrival at the destination


て

こまちゃんて言うな――!!

alternative form of the quotative particle って (tte), used after ん (n)


が

From Proto-Japonic *-nka. Compare Korean 가 (-ga) (possibly borrowed from Japanese into Korean).

猫が餌を食べた。

The cat [is the thing that] ate the cat food.

犬がいる。

木がある。

2012, “空想少女への恋手紙 [Love Letters to an Imaginary Girl]”, まらしぃ (Marasy) (lyrics):

The love letter whose destination is you, where should I post it that it may reach you?

宛先が君のラブレターは どこに出せば届くのかな

atesaki ga kimi no rabu retā wa doko ni daseba todoku no ka na

犬は好きだが、猫は嫌いだ。

先日の件ですが、[…]

(formal) Used to introduce a new topic into the discussion.

我々が心

富士見ヶ丘

関ヶ原

Gateway Plains (site of the Battle of Sekigahara)

おやっが

あにょが

(literary or Kagoshima) possessive used to connect nouns, most often seen in place names as ヶ.

このくそが！

Used after interjected nouns to express contempt.


が

From Proto-Ryukyuan *ga, from Proto-Japonic *-nka (“nominative and genitive case marker”). Cognate with Japanese が (ga).

inh

彼(あり)が書物(しむち)

genitive case marker
Indicates possession: of, -'s

彼(あり)が来(ち)ゃん。

学生(がくそー)が毎日(めーなち)学校(がっこー)んかい行(い)ちゃびーん。

nominative case marker
Indicates the subject of a sentence.

魚(いゆ)取(とぅ)いが行(い)ちゅん。


が

今日(ちゅー)や何(ぬー)さびたが？

final interrogative particle, similar to a question mark ("?"). Appear only in wh-questions,but followed by やー can be used in other interrogations.


い

Corruption of emphatic particle よ (yo) or exclamatory particle や (ya).

だ (da) → だい (dai)

か (ka) → かい (kai)

Used in compounds with certain sentence-ending particles to create a familiar effect.

わ (wa) → わい (wai)

ぞ (zo) → ぞい (zoi)

や (ya) → やい (yai)

Used in compounds with certain sentence-ending particles to create an exclamatory effect.

勝手にしろい！

Used after verbs to create an exclamatory effect.


い

From Old Japanese. Possibly cognate with Korean nominal particle 이 (i).
Used in Old Japanese, still found in use in Chinese works annotated for Japanese readers of Early Middle Japanese in the early Heian period, then becoming more limited and appearing only in specialized Buddhist texts. Fallen into disuse by the late Heian period from the time of so-called “cloistered rule”.
Obsolete. Not used in modern Japanese.

吾背子之 跡履求 追去者 木乃関守伊 将留鴨

If I go seeking after you, Following your footmarks, Will the guard of the pass In Ki bid me halt?

Waga seko ga ato fumimotome ohiyukaba Ki no sekimori i todometemukamo

在千方 在名草目而 行目友 家有妹伊 将鬱悒

This beautiful Arichigata. I wish to stop this way And continue to comfort my heart for a short while, but At home, my wife is waiting for me without being carefree. I must hurry on my way.

Arichigata arinagusamete yukamedomo ihe n aru imo i ifukashimi semu

乾坤乃 神乎禱而 吾恋 公以必 不相在目八方

If you pray to the deities of heaven and earth, You, who are in love with me, would never possibly meet me without fail.

Ame tsuchi no kami o inorite aga kofuru kimi i kanarazu ahazuara-me ya mo

筑波祢乃 乎弖毛許能母尓 毛利敝須恵 波播已毛礼杼母 多麻曾阿比尓家留

As if with wardens posted On this and that side of the Tsukuba Mountain, My mother watches me; But our spirits have met.

Tsukubane no otemokonomo ni moribe sue haha i moredomo tama zo ainikeru

797: Shoku Nihongi (edict 6)
京職大夫從三位藤原朝臣麻呂等伊負圖龜一頭獻止

797: Shoku Nihongi (edict 12)
聞看食國中能東方陸奥國守從五位上百濟王敬福伊部内少田郡仁黄金出在奏弖獻

797: Shoku Nihongi (edict 34)
然後仁逆心乎以天朝庭乎動傾止之天兵乎備流時仁和氣伊申天在

(obsolete) emphatic subject marker, added to nouns and verb stems

白細之 袖指可倍弖 靡寢 吾黒髪乃 真白髪尓 成極新世尓 共将有跡 玉緒乃 不絶射妹跡 結而石 事者不果 [...]

Till my black hair be white, We shall be together, I and my darling, Sleeping, our sleeves overlapped, She nestling by my side, Bound in never-ending love, Through this new age of our Sovereign; So I vowed, but my word proved false, My hopes were vain. […]

Shirotae no sode sashikaete nabikineshi waga kurokami no mashiraga ni naran kiwami aratayo ni tomoni aranto tamanoo no taejii imo to musubiteshi koto wa hatarazu […]

向岳之 若楓木 下杖取 花待伊間尓 嘆鶴鴨

Lower branches of a young katsura standing on the opposite peak. It is that I remove them and wait for the flowers to bloom, but throughout this time I feel frustrated and let out a sigh.

Makatsuwo no wakakatsuranoki shitsuetori hanamatsuimani nagekitsurukamo

青柳之 糸乃細紗 春風尓 不乱伊間尓 令視子裳欲得

The beautiful sight of fine willow branches hanging verdantly. I wish I had a girlfriend to show it to together with me at that time when it is never disturbed by the spring breeze.

Awoyagi no itonokuhashisa harukazeni midarenuimani misemukomogamo

(obsolete) emphatic phrase-final particle, emphasizing preceding phrase


ぬ

From Proto-Ryukyuan *no, from Proto-Japonic *nə (“nominative and genitive case marker”). Cognate with Japanese の (no).

那覇(なーふぁ)ぬ天気(てぃんち)

天道(てぃーだ)ぬ上(あ)がゆん。

鳥(とぅい)ぬ鳴(な)ちゅん。


さ

(dialectal Kanto, Tōhoku, Hokkaidō) sentence-ending particle indicating emphasis

大丈夫さ。気にしないでくれ。

(colloquial, men's speech) sentence-ending particle indicating familiarity or assertion

それでさ、凄く怒られたんだよ。

(informal) filler particle similar to ね (ne)


さ

かっちゃさ電話しねば！

『俺ら東京さ行ぐだ』

"I'm Goin' to Tokyo" (1984 song by Yoshi Ikuzō)

1929, Takiji Kobayashi, Kani Kōsen [The Crab Cannery Ship]:

「おい地獄さ行ぐんだで！」


я

Borrowed from Ottoman Turkish یا (ya), from Classical Persian یا (yā).

Я да видя!
Ja da vidja!
Let me see!

Я ти да се махаш от тук!

(colloquial) Used in imperative sentence for emphasis.

A: Няма повече мляко в хладилника.
B: Няма, я!
A: Njama poveče mljako v hladilnika.
B: Njama, ja!
A: There isn't any milk left in the fridge.
B: You're damn right there isn't!

(colloquial) Used to emphasize that what has just been said is true.


ん

/no/ → /n/, /ŋ/
Regular contraction of the possessive or nominalizing particle の (no). This contracted form is considered informal.

俺ん家に来ない？

あの、聞きたいことがあるんだけど。

Excuse me, I have a question that I would like to ask.

甲賀三郎, 『蜘蛛』
「とたてぐもの一種なんだよ。潮見君は毒蜘蛛と間違えたんだよ」http://www.aozora.gr.jp/cards/000260/files/1431_20128.html
“Totategumo no isshu na n da yo. Shiomi-kun wa dokugumo to machigaeta n da yo”
"It's a type of trapdoor spider. You've mistaken it for a venomous spider."


ん

From Proto-Ryukyuan *ni, from Proto-Japonic *ni. Cognate with Japanese に (ni).


つ

⟨tu⟩ → /t͡su/
From Old Japanese.
There were some variants found in the old documents, starting with alveolar consonants like の (no), な (na), す (su), し (shi), て (te) etc.
Yamada (1913) proposed that it is cognate with Old Korean 叱 (-s) (whence Middle Korean ㅅ (-s)). However, the phonology does not match, and there is a distinct vestigial medial -s- that appears in certain ancient Japanese terms, such as 春雨 (harusame, possibly haru ("spring") + -s- (genitive) + ame ("rain")), 新稲 (nīshine, possibly nī ("new") + -s- (genitive) + ine ("rice")), 真青 (masao, possibly ma ("true, real") + -s- (genitive) + ao ("blue")).

豊葦原中国

天つ風

国つ神

(archaic, obsolete) genitive or possessive marker


ゆ

From Proto-Ryukyuan *wo, from Proto-Japonic *wo.
Cognate with standard Japanese を (wo).

誰(たる)ゆ恨(うら)みとぅてぃ鳴(な)ちゅが浜(はま)千(ち)鳥(どぅり)。

Who do you hate when you sing, the plover on the beach?

(archaic, literary, with transitive verb) accusative case particle

(archaic, literary, with intransitive verb) away from, off

(archaic, literary, with intransitive verb) along, following a specified route, track, orbit, etc.


ゆ

Japanese: より (yori)

, text here
田兒之浦從打出而見者眞白衣不盡能高嶺爾雪波零家留
Tago₁-no₂-ura yu utiidete mi₁reba ma-siro₁ ni so₂ Puzi no₂ takane ni yuki₁ pa purike₁ru
We passed through Tago Bay while looking at the truly-white peak of Fuji from the falling snow.


や

おとしよりや体の不自由な方は登録しませんか。

O-toshiyori ya karada no fujiyū na kata wa tōroku shimasen ka.

Don’t seniors and the physically handicapped [and others] register?

最近は犬や猫を飼っている人は多い

saikin wa inu ya neko o katte iru hito wa ōi

recently, many people are raising [animals like] dogs and/or cats


や

From Proto-Ryukyuan *wa, from Proto-Japonic *pa. Cognate with Japanese は (wa).

今日(ちゅー)や良(い)い天気(てぃんち)でーびる。
Chū-ya ii tinchi dēbiru.
It is a fine day.

literally, “today + as for + good + weather + is”


ば

Daijirin
Daijisen
Man'yōshū
Nihon Kokugo Daijiten
ja:松村明

From Old Japanese. Appears in the Man'yōshū, completed 759 CE.
Originally an extension of the topic particle は (wa), for which the Old Japanese pronunciation is reconstructed as */pa/. The pa changes to ba as an instance of rendaku (連濁).

[affix] Used in Sanskrit transliteration

For a list of all kanji read as ば

This term, ば (ba), is the hiragana spelling of the above terms.

雨が降れば遠足を中止する。

急がば回れ ― isogaba maware ― If you rush, you'll go round → more haste, less speed

In Modern Japanese, attaches to the kateikei, and in Classical Japanese, attaches to the mizenkei, to express the hypothetical condition: if

雨が降れば道が濡れる。

c. late 9th–mid-10th century, Taketori Monogatari
それを見れば、三寸ばかりなる人いと美しうて居たり。
Sore o mireba, sansun bakari naru hito ito utsukushūte itari.
When he looked at it, there sat a very lovely human being about three sun long.

2007, “キラメキラリ”, in yura [yura] (lyrics), 神前暁 (music), THE IDOLM@STER MASTER ARTIST 02 高槻やよい:

宇宙から見れば地球も流れ星

If you see from the universe the earth is also a shooting star

In Modern Japanese, attaches to the kateikei, and in Classical Japanese, attaches to the izenkei, to express the precondition for something to happen: if; when

学べば学ぶほど、何も知らなかった事に気づく

Manabeba manabu hodo, nani mo shiranakatta koto ni kizuku

The more I learned, the more I felt I didn't know anything.

In the form …ば…ほど (… ba … hodo): the more …, the more

日本語もできれば英語もできる

to be able to speak both Japanese and English

Links sentences parallel in meaning. The sentences usually incorporate a も (mo): … and …

死なば死ね

(archaic) In the form mizenkei + ば (ba) + meireikei on the same verb: it doesn't matter if …; may as well

雨降れば運動会は中止せり。

The sports meeting is suspended due to rain.

1901, 慶應義塾, 修身要領
結婚は人生の重大事なれば配偶の選択は最も慎重ならざる可らず
kekkon wa jinsei no jūdaiji nareba haigū no sentaku wa motto mo shinchō narazaru bekarazu
Since marriage is a major event in life, the choice of a spouse has to be the most cautious.

1904, 芳賀矢一, 中等教科明治文典:

第六活用形の「死ね」は命令をいふときに用ゐる形なれば命令形といふ。

Dairoku katsuyōkei no “shine” wa meirei o iu toki ni mochiiru katachi nareba meireikei to iu.

The sixth conjugated form shine is the form used when expressing a command, so it's called the imperative form.

(archaic) In Modern Japanese, attaches to the kateikei, and in Classical Japanese, attaches to the izenkei, to express the reason or cause: because; as


ば

明鏡国語辞典 w:ja:明鏡国語辞典


た

/(-t̚) wa/ → /(-t͡ɕɨ) wa//(-t͡sʉ) wa/ → /(-t̚)ta/
Appears in noh and kyogen texts.
Contraction of any Sino-Japanese-derived term ending in a -t̚ 入声 (nisshō, “entering tone”) ち (-chi) or つ (-tsu) + particle は (wa).


よ

「ポレット先生はいますか。」「はい、いますよ。」

“Poretto sensei wa imasu ka.”“Hai, imasu yo.”

"Is Mr. Pollett here?" "Yes, [I'm certain that] he is here."

そうじゃないよ！

Indicates certainty, conviction, or emphasis.

雨よ雪に変わってくれ。

『神よツァーリを護り給え』

「万国の労働者よ、団結せよ！」

(literary, poetic) Used as a vocative particle to address the topic in question: O.


cár

head

cár (copular form used before a consonant, present/future form used before a vowel cárb, past/conditional form used before a vowel cárbh)

a vowel cárb (archaic future present)
cár (mutation mutation-radical)
chár (lenition mutation)
gcár (eclipsis mutation)

Cár locht ortsa é?

Cár thairbhe domsa é?

Cár chás má dúirt sé é?

where was/would be..., what was/would be


で

Originally a contraction of にて (nite), later treated as a conjugation of the copula だ (da).

ここで休みたい。

I want to rest in here (at this location).

at: indicating a location at which something happens

筆ペンで書く

自転車で行きましょう。

with, by, using: indicating the means by or with which something happens

白水着で泳いでみた

in: indicating the containing by something


で

Corrupted from ぜ (ze, sentence-ending particle signifying emphasis).

ja-r

そないな事したらあかんで。

(dialectal, chiefly Kansai) sentence-ending particle signifying emphasis


の

Pseudo-Japonism, Orthographic borrowing from Japanese possessive marker の (no).

朱力亞の手作包, →ISBN

打造個人化の網站 XOOPS 2.3.x 完全實戰手冊, →ISBN

梅問題の超質感商品攝影手法大公開, →ISBN


の

決戰時空の塔


の

⟨no₂⟩ → */nə/ → /no/
From Old Japanese の (no₂), in turn from Proto-Japonic *nə. Appears in common use in the Kojiki (712 CE). Perhaps also cognate with *nə, an element found in some Old Korean place names spelled as 乃 and 仍.
May be an apophonic form of Old Japanese particle な (na). This other form also appears in a similar function. However, its usage was already restricted to certain set expressions by the time of the earliest Japanese texts in the Nara period, with no clear examples of productive use. These appears to be adjacent to the vowels /a/, /o/, or /u/, suggesting na was an assimilated version of no.
In Old Japanese, there are three particles used productively to mark one noun modifying another:
* つ (tsu), as in 沖つ島守 (oki tsu shimamori, “the caretaker or watchman of an island of the offing [offshore]”) or 黄泉つ国 (yomo tsu kuni, “the country of the underworld”).
* が (ga), as in 関ヶ原 (Sekigahara, a placename, parseable as seki “checkpoint, barrier” + ga [possessive] + hara “field, plain”)
* の (no), as in 倭の一本薄 (Yamato no hitomoto susuki, “the sawtooth sedge of Yamato”, a line from one of the songs in the Kojiki)
The apophonic form な (na) persisted only as an element in certain compounds, such as 港 (minato, “harbor”, generally parsed as mi “water” + na [possessive] + to “door, gate” → port, landing, harbor), or 掌 (tanagokoro, “palm of the hand”, parsed as ta “hand” + na [possessive] + kokoro “heart, center”, changing to gokoro due to rendaku).

私の意見

genitive case marker
indicates possession: of, -'s

大統領のブッシュ氏

山田の馬鹿野郎！

山田の奴

genitive case marker
indicates identity or apposition

数学の分野

緑の車

全ての商品

母への手紙

genitive case marker
a noun, adverb, or phrase modifier

眉毛の濃い人

nominative case marker in a relative or subordinate clause

不可能じゃないの？

聞いてんの？

a sentence ending that indicates emphasis or a question, depending on intonation

1908, Natsume Sōseki, “第一夜”, in Yume Jūya [Ten Nights of Dreaming]:

Then I picked up the fallen pieces of stars and put them on the soil.

それから星の破片の落ちたのを拾って来て、かろく土の上へ乗せた。

Sore kara hoshi no kake no ochita no o hirottekite, karoku tsuchi no ue e noseta.

食べるのが大好きだ。

Nominalizes an adjective, verb, or phrase

懐かしのうた

麗しの君

(literary) used with bare i-adjective stem

As a separator when reading telephone numbers.


の

From Proto-Japonic *nə.
Pronunciation appears to be distinct from 野 (no₁, “plain, field”).


ona

Introduces subordinate clauses after mafai, tatau, faigatā and faigofie.


ua

Ua ʻai ka pōpoki i ka ʻiole.

1840, October 8th, 1840 Constitution of the Hawaiian Kingdom
Ua hana mai ke Akua i nā lāhui kānaka a pau i ke koko hoʻokahi, e noho like lākou ma ka honua nei me ke kuʻikahi, a me ka pōmaikaʻi. Ua hāʻawi mai nō ke Akua i kekahi mau waiwai like, no nā kānaka a pau, me nā aliʻi a pau o nā ʻāina a pau loa.

God hath made of one blood all nations of men, to dwell on the face of the earth in unity and blessedness. God has also bestowed certain rights alike on all men, and all chiefs and all people of all lands.

used before a verb to denote completed action


ua

mina motika mifala ua

ibadan saki ua

ngasisioko giki bariman bato simara ibingun ua

aku ua sakali-sakali ana ihoru sosira

it is absolutely not allowed that they paddle earlier


な

Probably derived from mild emphatic interjection and sentence-final particle ね, itself from Old Japanese, indicating a general sense of admiration or consideration, or hope that the preceding statement comes to pass.

そうかな。

(informal, mild emphatic) sentence-final particle indicating emotion or mild emphasis


な

→ English: な-adjective

/ni aru/ → /naru/ → /na/
From Old Japanese. Originally an abbreviation of に (ni, particle) + ある (aru, the attributive form of classical あり ari, “to be”).

変な人

copula particle used after 形容動詞 (keiyōdōshi, often referred to in English teaching texts as -na adjective, literally “adjective verb”) to make them function as adjectives


な

Daijirin
Nihon Kokugo Daijiten
Nihon Shoki

From Old Japanese. Probably the root na of the negative adjective ない (nai). An alternative theory is that this is the imperfective conjugation of negative auxiliary verb ず (zu).
First cited to the Nihon Shoki of 720.

行くな！

無断で引用するな。

混ぜるな危険

(masculine in modern Japanese, informal, added after the dictionary form of a verb) indicates prohibition: don't


な

Possibly an apophonic form of の (no₂), from assimilation with adjacency to vowels such as a or u. Usage is mostly restricted to fixed expressions like 掌 (tanagokoro, “palm of the hand”, parsed as ta “hand” + na [possessive] + kokoro “heart, center”, changing to gokoro due to rendaku), due to such assimilation.
Vovin (2020, pp. 119-123) suggests that this may instead be a plural marker, which is supported by some terms changing due to rendaku, typically a contraction of -no₂- or -ni-.


な

Originally, そ (so₂) was only added to emphasize the sincerity of the request to the listener, however the structure of な (na) + continuative stem of verb + そ (so₂) quickly became lexicalized and the form only prepended by な (na) fell out of use.

サ行変格活用 サ行変格活用#Japanese

カ行変格活用 カ行変格活用#Japanese

(before the irrealis stem of a サ行変格活用 or カ行変格活用 verb and before the continuative stem of other verbs) indirectly indicates prohibition: don't

那杼理爾阿良牟遠 伊能知波 那志勢多麻比曾

nado₂ri ni aramu wo ino₂ti pa na-sisetamapi₁-so₂

(before the continuative stem of a verb followed by そ) entreats the listener and indirectly expresses prohibition: please don't


di

From Proto-Philippine *diq (“particle of negation”). Blust (2010-) notes that this word is believed by some to be short for hindi (“no; not”), but its agreement with the monosyllabic word in other languages suggests that this shorter form is older. See also dili (“not; no; hardly; rarely; seldom”). Compare Yami ji, Ilocano di, Isnag di, Cebuano di/dili, Maranao di', Western Subanon di, Mansaka di, Tausug di'.


paha

Used to indicate the conditional mood, expressed in English as perhaps, might, possibly


diez

Tas nav diez cik grūti.


ani

Cognate to tani (“now, at present, then”), from Proto-Albanian *nū, from Proto-Indo-European *nū (“now”) (cognate to Sanskrit नू (nū, “now”)). Occurs in coordination with other particles, compare nani, nime.
Further related to Arvanitika Albanian αί (e, “yes”) and (Standard) Albanian a (“probably, whether; or, there”).

cog

Ani kush po qesh!

As if someone (specific) should laugh! / Oh look who's laughing!

even, as if; alas, oh look, ah (expressing laughter, irony, sarcasm, pity, concern, grief, annoyance, distrust)

Ani mori nuse...

Well, (oh) you bride... (traditional wedding song)

(folklore, poetic) come on, hey; yes, well, alright; oh/ah (a vocative particle or/and complementary poetic tool)


ani

Inherited from Proto-Slavic *ani. By surface analysis, univerbation of a + ni


ani

Czech: ani

Inherited from Proto-Slavic *ani. By surface analysis, univerbation of a + ni.

even (in reality; implying an extreme example in the case mentioned, as compared to the implied reality)


ani

Polish: ani

Silesian: ani

Inherited from Proto-Slavic *ani. First attested in 1386.

Gonicz bødø neprzyacele moie y polapø ie; any se obroczø alisz zginø (persequar inimicos meos et comprehendam illos et non convertar donec deficiant)

1939 [end of the 14th century], Ryszard Ganszyniec, Witold Taszycki, Stefan Kubica, Ludwik Bernacki, editors, Psałterz florjański łacińsko-polsko-niemiecki [Sankt Florian Psalter], Krakow: Zakład Narodowy imienia Ossolińskich, z zasiłkiem Sejmu Śląskiego [The Ossoliński National Institute: with the benefit of the Silesian Parliament], pages 17, 41:


ani

Inherited from Old Polish ani. By surface analysis, univerbation of a + ni.

Nec, et Neque - Ani tez.

1588, Ambrogio Calepino, Dictionarium decem linguarum, page 692a:

Ne - Nie, ani.

1588, Ambrogio Calepino, Dictionarium decem linguarum, page 691b:

(Middle Polish) not also; Further details are uncertain.

Jakom ya slachathnegonego pawla segzowa nyeothbyla gwalthem oth kmyecza yego sbyeglego zvrzadem zyemskyem a nym gwalthv szwolala (a ny) y dalyey wedluk posw.

(Middle Polish) The meaning of this term is uncertain.


ani

Inherited from Old Polish ani. By surface analysis, univerbation of a + ni


もの

〜ね, 〜な: Used to indicate reason or excuse

(feminine) A sentence-final particle used for emphasis.

だって寒いんだもん。

羨ましくなんかないもん！ふん！

Used to assert something. Often carries feelings of dissatisfaction or downheartedness, but not always.


albo

albom (combined-form object-first-person object-singular)
albośmy (combined-form object-first-person object-plural)
alboś (combined-form object-second-person object-singular)
alboście (combined-form object-plural object-second-person)
albo (combined-form object-singular object-third-person)
albo (combined-form object-plural object-third-person)

Albo to będzie przydatne?

Do you really think this is going to be handy?

(colloquial) used to express the speaker's doubt or surprise

(Masuria) Introduces a yes-no question; whether, or


yay

Way, yay, wewiib enda-gizhigaawan iniw ininaatigoon.

Goodness gracious, hurry, the maples are running just fast.


sa

Reduced form of sua. Semantically derived from Cantonese 嘅 (ge³, possessive marker).

der+

iou-sa filo

êle-sa

ilôtro-sa casa

uví mai-sa ladínha

particle appended after pronouns to denote ownership: -'s


sa

Uncertain. Possibly from Portuguese sabe (“know”), thus a doublet of sábi.

Sâm diabo? Nunca, sâm tacho-sa!

expletive particle expressing confirmation or explanation


sa

Mii sa go ozhiitaawaad igo.


sa

From English shall or borrowed from Dutch zal.

A krabdagu taki: - Angri e kiri mi ba. A di mi si yu e nyan, ne mi kon.
Adyuku taki: - We san mi e nyan, mi no sabi efu yu sa nyan en. Na kasaba dokun mi tyari. Efu yu sa nyan en, dan mi sa gi yu.

1975, “Basya Adyuku koni”, in Ursy M. Lichtveld, Jan Voorhoeve, editors, Creole drum. An Anthology of Creole Literature in Surinam, New Haven, London: Yale University Press, →ISBN, page 86:

The crab-eating raccoon said: 'I'm starving, brother. When I saw that you're eating, I came over immediately.
Adyuku said: 'I say, I don't know whether you'll [want to] eat what I'm eating. I brought cassava duckanoo. If you'll eat it, then I'll give it to you.

Blesi sa kon bogobogo, Masra pramis' m'anga yu, Lek'wan alen a sa wiki, Kraf' den di bribi fu tru, Sula fu seigi, wan dei sa was' kon na gron, now wan tu dropu de spiti, ma sibibusi sa kon

1999, Hillary de Bruin, “Liederen uit de praktijk van de duman [Songs from the Winti priest's practice]”, in OSO. Tijdschrift voor Surinaamse taalkunde, letterkunde en geschiedenis, Instituut ter Bevordering van de Surinamistiek, →ISSN, page 152:

Blessing will come abundantly / the Lord promised to me and you / like a rainshower it will awaken / strengthen those who truly believe / With cataracts of blessing / one day the ground will be awash / now a few droplets are spitting / but torrential rains will come


chá

bấu khai đảy lẻ au mà chá

(used sentence-finally) that's all; merely; only; just


að

From Old Norse at (“at, to”), from Proto-Germanic *at (“at, to”). More at at.

Mig langar að lesa.


нет

Inherited from Old East Slavic нѣту (nětu), Proto-Slavic *nětu, from *ne (“not”) + *e, short form of *estь (“is”) + *tu (“there, here”).

inh+

Здесь нет доро́г.

У меня́ нет книг.
U menjá net knig.
I have no books.

literally, “There is not of books with me.”

Пётр дома? Его́ нет.
Pjotr doma? Jevó net.
Is Pyotr at home? He isn't.

+obj

gen<something> + :у(gen)<possessed by someone>

genitive ‘something’ and у (u + genitive) ‘possessed by someone’

there is not, there are no [with genitive ‘something’ and у (u, + genitive) ‘possessed by someone’] (often idiomatically translated by English not have with the object of у (u) as the subject)


anna

Nuzi (Babylonian Standard)
El-Amarna (Babylonian Standard)

𒅗𒋗 𒀭𒈾 𒊮𒋗 𒌌𒆷
[pīšu anna, libbašu ulla]
KA-šu an-na ŠA₃-šu ul-la
There is a yes in his mouth, but a no in his heart.


kai

From Proto-Balto-Slavic *kai; compare Old Prussian kāi (“when”), Latvian kâ(i) (“when”), Old Church Slavonic цѣ (cě, “and also, besides”), from Proto-Indo-European *kʷoy; compare Ancient Greek ποῖ (poî, “whereto”). Perhaps ultimately the locative of Proto-Indo-European *kʷos, kʷis (“question particle”); see kas (“what”). Also, compare with tai (“that”).

cog

kai kàs - (a certain) something
Àš táu kai ką̃ turiù - I have something for you.

kai kadà - sometimes, in some cases

(in conjunction with interrogative words) some, a certain (suggesting the complement is a known entity, but withheld)


kai

From Proto-Polynesian *kai. Cognates include Tobanga kai and Nukuoro gai.

Indicates disapproval and/or dissatisfaction.

Indicates regret that something didn't happen.


да

Да, прав си.

word used to indicate agreement or acceptance: yes


да

LL-Q7918 (bul)-Kiril kovachev-да (unstressed).wav

From Proto-Slavic *da (in the conjunction sense), related to the first etymology.

Да влезе!

Да не съм те чул да се оплакваш!

Да почива в мир.

Да живее кралят.

Да излезем ли по-късно?

Да вървим!

used to make offers, suggestions or ask advice

Да си ми виждал ключовете?

Да съм ти искал мнението?


да

толат мо? да, толам

да мый тыйым палем

шоналтет да?


да

Почнав да објаснувам.

Можам да седнам.

Да не се вратиш никогаш.

Да му умрат родителите.


да

Old Ruthenian: да (da)

Belarusian: ды (dy)

Ukrainian: да (da)

Russian: да (da) (see there for further descendants)

Inherited from Proto-Slavic *da. Cognates include Old Church Slavonic да (da) and Old Polish da.

Used to mark a subjunctive aspect: may...


да

Inherited from Old East Slavic да (da), from Proto-Slavic *da.

да бу́дет так

И сказа́л Бог: да бу́дет свет.

Да здра́вствует респу́блика!


да

Да ты стал оптими́стом.

Да он рома́нтик.

Да что с тобо́й тако́е?

What's up with you? (implying something has been visibly wrong for some time)

Да как ты сме́ешь?

да ла́дно (тебе́/вам) ― da ládno (tebé/vam) ― come on / give me a break / really

ну да ла́дно

but okay / but alright / but whatever / anyway

да нет

oh, no; nah (a politely emphatic or reassuring no)

— Ты же замёрзнешь! — Да нет, про́сто нужна́ тёплая оде́жда.
— Ty že zamjórznešʹ! — Da net, prósto nužná tjóplaja odéžda.
— You'll freeze! — Nah, I just need warm clothes.

да ещё (и) ― da ješčó (i) ― and also / and even

Да говорю́ же тебе́.

I'm telling you (and have been this whole time).

Да пошёл он (к чёрту). ― Da pošól on (k čórtu). ― Oh to hell with him.

Да э́то же Ник со́бственной персо́ной.

Да кака́я ра́зница?

Who cares? (implying the irrelevance has been obvious for some time)

да ну (тебя́/вас) ― da nu (tebjá/vas) ― yeah, right / come on

Да ра́ди бо́га.

Да зна́ю я, в э́том и пробле́ма!

Э́то о чём-то да говори́т.

Я всё для них де́лал, да и сейча́с продолжа́ю де́лать.

I've been doing everything for them, and actually still am.

Ja vsjo dlja nix délal, da i sejčás prodolžáju délatʹ.

— Она́ тебе́ не нра́вится? — Да нет, она́ неплоха́я, но что́-то с ней стра́нное происхо́дит.

2019, Екатерина Вильям-Вильмонт, Фальшивый папа:

— You don't like her? — No, no, she's nice, but something weird's going on with her.

— Oná tebé ne nrávitsja? — Da net, oná neploxája, no štó-to s nej stránnoje proisxódit.

Used as an emphasiser, usually at the start of a sentence or phrase. In many cases, emphasises impatience or irritation, but in others may simply emphasise surprise or an observation.

Да переста́нь, ты меня́ смуща́ешь.

Да забу́дь ты уже́ об э́том.

Да заткни́сь же ты наконе́ц.

Used as an emphasiser before an imperative verb to express urgency.


да

Inherited from Proto-Slavic *da, probably old imperative of the word да̏ти, itself from Proto-Indo-European *deh₃- (“to give”).

Је ли тако? Да!

да ли сте жедни?

реци ми да ли је то истина?

да се ниси усудио!

да̑ Бог!

да почнемо!

in combination with other words, expressing wish, command etc.


да

Related to Yakut даҕаны (dağanı); compare Tuvan даа (daa), Turkish da.

With interrogative pronouns, forms negative indefinites.

оҕо да улахан да

мин да, эн да


ali

Polish: ali

Univerbation of a + li. First attested in the 15th century.

Jakossny my vyethnaly y rosdzyelyli Anna s B[b]arbara..., rolamy..., lassy, borrmy aly do waczyerzina syvotha

1950 [1499], Władysław Kuraszkiewicz, Adam Wolff, editors, Zapiski i roty polskie XV-XVI wieku z ksiąg sądowych ziemi warszawskiej, number 1831, Warsaw:

(attested in Masovia) until, as long as, up to


ali

Inherited from Old Polish ali. By surface analysis, univerbation of a + li.

surf

(obsolete) used for presenting something; here


abo

Polish: abo

Silesian: abo

Inherited from Proto-Slavic *abo. First attested in the 14th century.

The meaning of this term is uncertain. Possibilities include:

Zaprawdę abo są poznali nasze książęta, iże to jest Krystus (numquid vere cognoverunt principes, quia hic est Christus Jo 7, 26)?

Middle of the 15th century, Rozmyślanie o żywocie Pana Jezusa, page 457:


abo

(Masuria, Ostróda, Warmia) disjunctive and emphasis particle

(Masuria) introduces a rhetorical question


abo

introduces a tag question; right? isn't it?


θα

From a contraction of θέλω να (thélo na, “I wish that I may”). See the same development of the Albanian future tense with do të (“I will”), from the contraction of the old form of the verb "dua të"; for ex. "do të [shkoj]" (I will [go]) < "duo të [shkoj]" (I want to [go]), with accent shift.

να

used before dependent form in subjunctive clauses

Θα τον προσέχω όλη μου τη ζωή.

I will watch over him for the rest of my life.

Ο αδελφός μου θα βλέπει την σειρά όσο συνεχίσει.

My brother will be watching that series as long as it continues.

O adelfós mou tha vlépei tin seirá óso synechísei.

Ας γκρινιάζει, εγώ θα πηγαίνω εκεί όσο θέλω.

Let him moan, I'll go there for as long as I want.

As gkriniázei, egó tha pigaíno ekeí óso thélo.

added before the present verb forms to form the continuous or imperfective future tense:

Αύριο, θα δούμε μια ταινία στο σινεμά.

Tomorrow, we'll see a film at the cinema.

Σου υπόσχομαι ότι δεν θα πω τίποτα.

Όταν το δει η μάνα μου, θα με σκοτώσει!

Ótan to dei i mána mou, tha me skotósei!

added before the dependent verb forms to form the simple or perfective future tense:

Μέχρι να γυρίσεις από την αγορά, θα έχω τελειώσει.

By the time you come back from the market, I will have finished.

Méchri na gyríseis apó tin agorá, tha écho teleiósei.

Τον Ιανουάριο, θα έχω δουλέψει εκεί είκοσι χρόνια.

In January, I will have worked there twenty years.

Ton Ianouário, tha écho doulépsei ekeí eíkosi chrónia.

έχω έχω#Greek

added before the present forms of έχω (écho) and the non-finite to form some types of the future perfect:

Θα είχα πάει να κοιμηθώ, γι’ αυτό δεν σε άκουσα.

I would have gone to sleep, that's why I didn't hear you.

Tha eícha páei na koimithó, gi’ aftó den se ákousa.

έχω έχω#Greek

added before the imperfect forms of έχω (écho) and the non-finite to form some types of the pluperfect:

Αν δεν είχα φρενάρει, θα τον σκότωνα.

If I hadn't braked, I would have killed him.

Τι θα γινόταν αν πατούσα αυτό το κουμπί;

What would happen if I pressed this button?

Ti tha ginótan an patoúsa aftó to koumpí?

Εγώ σ’ αυτή την περίπτωση, θα του έλεγα να φύγει.

Egó s’ aftí tin períptosi, tha tou élega na fýgei.

added before the imperfect verb forms to form the conditional mood:


ko

Placed at the beginning of nominative phrases to signify that they are declarative


ko

particle prefixed to names as a determinative


ko

From Proto-Polynesian *ko. Cognates include Hawaiian ʻo and Samoan ʻo.

Ko kimatou, ia tagata o Tokelau, e takutino

1948, Tūlāfono fakavae a Tokelau [Constitution of Tokelau], page 1:

Marks the succeeding noun as in apposition of the preceding noun.


ko

present perfect tense marker, inserted immediately before the relevant verb


ko

zh-l

乎 (hū, “in, on; (archaic) sentence-final particle”)

Koj hais li ko...

Txhob ua li ko.


lo

Gajlaeng Cangqdiq naeuz: “Rongh!” Yiengq couh doq miz rongh lo.

2016, Gij Baujcingq Moq Caeuq Geij Bonj Gij Baujcingq Daeuzdaeuz [The New Testament with A Few Books of the Old Testament], Hong Kong: New Bridge Publishing Company Limited, →ISBN, Lizsij dih Gaihcij [Genesis] 1:3:

And God said, Let there be light: and there was light.

Used at the end of a sentence to indicate a change of state or a new situation.

Used at the end of a sentence to express affirmation or conclusiveness.


nia

Don't so kiam siap can anot? That one only five cents nia. ― Come on, don't be so stingy. That costs only five cents.

(Singlish) Used to downplay the intensity of something that has been overestimated. Might indicate a slight belittling tone.


d'

d’ól sé

d’fhág sé

d’fhreagair sé

(before vowel sounds and fhr-) Apocopic form of do: Marker of the past tense.

Used before vowel sounds (including when f has been lenited to fh before a vowel) and also before fr- lenited to fhr-. The variant form used before consonants, do, is generally omitted but may be encountered in Munster Irish and in literary language.


phải

LL-Q9199 (vie)-Jessica Nguyen (Pamputt)-phải.wav

Non-Sino-Vietnamese reading of Chinese 被 (“to suffer; passive marker”, SV: bị) (Old Chinese: /*m-pʰ(r)ajʔ, m-pʰ(r)ajʔ-s, mə-pʰ(r)aj, pʰ(r)aj-s/ in Baxter and Sagart (2014), along the semantic evolution of “to have to endure; to suffer” > “have to; must” > “correct” > “right (in direction)”. It may reflect an Old Chinese pronunciation /*N-pʰ(r)ajʔ-s/ with the loss of a nasal prefix as is also seen in other early loans (Sagart, per. comm.).
The common Vietic word for “right” is Proto-Vietic *dam ~ *tam, whence the now-archaic đăm.

der

SV: <i class="Latn mention" lang="vi">bị</i>

vi-etym-sino

yes (in response to a question containing phải)


una

ujarak-una

kia-una nasaa? or kianna nasaa?

an enclitic written by hyphenating or by assimilation which indicates to be.


ɔ

1998, Je Tsuo Blɔ Nya Tomi Kɛ Ha Adesa He Blɔhi, translation of 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, (both published by United Nations Department of Public Information et al and accessed at United Nations Human Rights website on 7 Jan 2012)

Now, therefore,/The General Assembly,/Proclaims this Universal Declaration of Human Rights.

Jehanɛ ɔ,/Kpe Ngua a ha lemi kaa/Je tsuo Blɔ Nya Tomi kɛ Ha Adesa He Blɔhi nɛ ɔ.

1999, Bible Society of Ghana (tr.), Baiblo aloo Ngmani Klɔuklɔu ɔ →ISBN, Somi He ɔ page 186

Romans 8:16: The Spirit himself also, along with our own spirits, tells us that we are God's children.

Roma Bi 8:16: Mawu mumi ɔ nitsɛ kɛ wɔ hu wa mumi ɔ yeɔ odase kaa Mawu bimɛ ji wɔ.

an intensifier, used after a word or at the end of a phrase, to stress importance, show respect or add grandeur.


va

Inherited from Proto-Balto-Slavic *wāˀs, from Proto-Indo-European *weh₂-s. Cognate with Lithuanian võs (“hardly”).


ay

Compare Hanunoo ay, Cebuano kay, Remontado Agta ay, and Ibanag ay. Similar function to Ilocano ket and Pangasinan et.

Ako ay Pilipino. (Pilipino ako.)

Ika'y isang sirena. (Sirena ka.)

Separates the subject and the predicate. Indicative of a sentence inversion, i.e. from predicate-first form to subject-first form.

Kung gayon ay sumunod sa akin

Parini ka ay/Ay, parini ka.

(dialectal) Particle used in start or end of sentences to express warning or catch attention. See also: a, o, oy, and aya/ayaa.


-ka

head

-ka (front vowel harmony variant -kä, linguistic notation -kA)

From Proto-Finnic *-ka, from Proto-Uralic *-ka. Originally probably an emphatic particle.

ei → eikä

saati → saatikka

(non-productive) Used for emphasis or for prosodic purposes

jo- → joka, ku- → kuka, mi- → mikä

(non-productive) Extends monosyllabic stems to avoid words with only a single light syllable.


-ka

From Proto-Finnic *-ka. Cognates include Finnish -ka.

Used after negative verbs to join two verb clauses: neither, nor, and not


-ka

Na-mutung-ka.


ñ

Rađ Nepos dix̃ qᵭ [teñ trā

1835, illā] ñ vult iñ respōđe sñ . . ., Rotuli Curiae Regis, &c, page 20:

.VIII. ᵭ. ñ sunt de firma Comitat⁹.

1889, The Great Roll of the Pipe for the thirteenth year of the reign of King Henry the Second: Buchingehāscr̃ et Bedefordscr̃:

(Medieval Latin) Scribal abbreviation of nōn (“not”).


des

Ju pli mi lernas, des pli mi scias.

1903, Ben Elmy, “La Lingvo de la floroj”, in The Esperantist: The Esperanto Gazette for the Spreading of the International Language, page 138:

The more we study the flowers, the more we establish that many of them possess unexpected abilities, which in an animal we would willingly call instinct or even foresight.

the; used with ju and either pli (“more”) or malpli (“less”) to form the second half of a coordinated comparative.


like

Adjective from Middle English lik, lyk, lich, like, from Old English ġelīċ by shortening, influenced by Old Norse líkr, glíkr; both from Proto-Germanic *galīkaz (“like, similar, same”). Related to alike; more distantly, with lich and -ly. Cognate with West Frisian like (“like; as”), Saterland Frisian gliek (“like”), Danish lig (“alike”), Dutch gelijk (“like, alike”), German gleich (“equal, like”), Icelandic líkur (“alike, like, similar”), Norwegian lik (“like, alike”) Swedish lik (“like, similar”)
Adverb from Middle English like, lyke, liche, lyche, from Old English ġelīċe (“likewise, also, as, in like manner, similarly”) and Old Norse líka (“also, likewise”); both from Proto-Germanic *galīkê, from Proto-Germanic *galīkaz (“same, like, similar”).
Conjunction from Middle English like, lyke, lik, lyk, from the adverb Middle English like.
Preposition from Middle English like, lyke, liche, lyche, lijc, liih (“similar to, like, equal to, comparable with”), from Middle English like (adjective) and like (adverb).

der

“You'll try it, some day, like enough; but you'll get tired of the change pretty soon.” “Why?” “Well, I'll tell you. Now you've always been a sailor; did you ever try some other business?”

1909, Mark Twain, Extract from Captain Stormfield's Visit to Heaven:

If I can't spare the time—well, like as not we go anyhow. And where else can you ride all day with your saddle and neck full of snow brushed from the trees and still not freeze half to death?

1936, New Mexico: The Sunshine State's Recreational and Highway Magazine:

He was so angry, like.

(colloquial, Scotland, Ireland, Geordie, Teesside, Liverpool) A delayed filler.

There were, like, twenty of them.

She was, like, sooooo happy.

[Sally Brown:] Christmas is getting all you can get while the getting is good.
 [Charlie Brown:] GIVING! The only real joy is GIVING!
 [Sally Brown, rolling her eyes:] Like, wow!

1972 December 1, Charles M. Schulz, Peanuts:

"She's like brand new."

1980, Richard Louis Newmann, Siege of Orbitor, page xiii. 68:

(colloquial) Indicating approximation or uncertainty.

I was like, “Why did you do that?” and he's like, “I don't know.”

And then he, like, got all angry and left the room.

A customer walked in like, "I demand to see the manager!"

You're just doing your own thing and some one comes out the blue,
They're like, "Alright"
What ya saying, "Yeah can I take your digits?"
And you're like, "no not in a million years, you're nasty please leave me alone."

'It made this sky ripping noise, and then went like “bang”, real hard into the ground. A long way away but.'

2014, Geoffrey Riddell, The Fly-ahead Boy, Lulu.com, →ISBN, page 108:

(colloquial) Used to precede an approximate quotation or paraphrase or an expression of something that happened.

ပေါ့

colloquial: used to precede paraphrased quotations


dr.

(title) Abbreviation of doktor (“physician, doctorate-haver”).

(title) Abbreviation of dronning (“queen”).


para

From Proto-Malayo-Polynesian *paRa (collective particle). Compare Acehnese para (“horde, troop”).

inh

para siswa

definitive particle used to denote that the word preceded is plural


王×

Used to refer to something not specified. Usually read as 某 (mǒu).

傻×

Used to replace offensive characters. Usually read as 叉 (chā).


l'

(before a vowel) Apocopic form of 'o, 'a: the


ala

Estonian: ala-

Finnish: ala, ala-

desc

Ingrian: ala-, ⇒ allaalle, allaal, allaalt, allaa, alemmaal, alemmas, alempain

Karelian:

North Karelian: ala-;

South Karelian: ala-; alah

Veps: ala-

Võro: ala-

Votic: ala-


dot

From Proto-Albanian *dhētim, accusative of Proto-Indo-European *dhē (“to put”). Alternatively it might represent a univerbation of do + të; Gustav Meyer opines for a Latin provenance, from in toto.

Nuk e bëj dot.

A vjen dot?

Expresses impossibility, thus it corresponds to "Can't" in negative sentences and "can" in interrogative ones.


za

Inherited from Proto-Slavic *za. Sense 1 is a semantic loan from Polish za.


za

Polish: za

Silesian: za

Inherited from Proto-Slavic *za. First attested in the 14th century.

Wstan, mystrzv, othpovyecz, gyesthly vmyesz. Za po polskv nye *roszvnyesz?

1901 [1463-1465], Jan Rozwadowski, editor, De morte prologus [Rozmowa mistrza Polikarpa ze śmiercią], Mierzeniec, Płock, line w. 82:

(attested in Masovia) interrogative particle: introduces a yes-no question

Czo za prawo myedzy thema dwema?

1858 [c. 1408], Wojciech Szurkowski z Ponieca, “Wyroki sądów miejskich czyli ortyle [Urban court rulings i.e. "Ortyls"]”, in Wacław Aleksander Maciejowski, editor, Historia prawodawstw słowiańskich [History of Slavic lawmaking], volume 6, Poniec, page 26:

(attested in Greater Poland) combines with interrogatigives to mean what kind (of)


za

Ta koszula jest dla mnie za mała.


za

N class inflected form of -a (plural only).


yo

de tifiam yo

sentence-final action negation particle; not


yo

Celtiberian: ios

Gaulish: -ío

n-g

Old Irish: transphonologized as relative forms of verbs and leniting relative clauses

Traditionally regarded as the stem form of Proto-Indo-European *yós.


le

Jussive particle le (“let”) corresponds with 2nd person/singular Aorist form of Albanian lë (“to let/leave (go/behind)”); le (“you let/left (go/behind)”). From Proto-Albanian *laide (“let”). Identical to Baltic permissive and optative particles Latvian lai (“to let”), Lithuanian laĩ, Old Prussian -lai.
Cognate to Albanian lihem (“to be left; allowed”) (Standard & Tosk), Gheg Albanian lêhem, lêna (passive forms of active lë).

cog

1. jussive particle → le (“let”)
2. + subjunctive particle → të (“it”)
3. + → subjunctive verb form (present, imperfect, perfect or past perfect). See also (*) for irregular verbs.

Jussive modal particle used before verbs. A gentle way to express orders, instructions or to ask for approval/permission. Jussive construction

Examples: third-person singular present active jussive of marr:
le (“let”) + të + marrë (“take”)
le të marrë ― let it take

third-person singular present passive jussive of merrem:
le (“let”) + të + merret (“deal (with)”)
le të merret ― let it deal (with)

third-person singular present active jussive of shkoj:
le (“let”) + të + shkojë (“go”)
le të shkojë ― let him go

third-person plural present active jussive of shkoj:
le (“let”) + të + shkojnë (“go”)
le të shkojnë ― let them go

third-person singular present active jussive of flas:
le (“let”) + të + flasë (“talk; speak”)
le të flasë ― let him talk

third-person plural present active jussive of flas:
le (“let”) + të + flasin (“talk; speak”)
le të flasin ― let them talk

indicative/present → subjunctive/present
është (“is”) → jetë (“be”)

Example: third-person singular present active jussive of jam:
le (“let”) + të (“it”) + jetë (“be”)
le të jetë ― let it be

Le që...

(subjunctive) + që (“that”) → subjunctive: not only that; if only; would that

Le se...

(Gheg, subjunctive) → mostly + se (“that”) instead of që (“id”): not only that; if only; would that


le

aan le?

O yahii le!
He really left! (Pular)


tam

Ja tam to lubię.

coś tam

(colloquial) particle that reduces the importance of something some

(colloquial) particle that marks a statement as inadequately describing something


tam

(expressive) particle that highlights the similarities of something


lada

Lada moment przyjdzie i będzie dobrze.

He'll come any moment now and it'll be alright.


tè

Alternative form of té (past tense marker)


bin

Tasol graun i no bin i stap olsem yumi save lukim nau.

1989, Buk Baibel long Tok Pisin, Port Moresby: Bible Society of Papua New Guinea, Jenesis 1:2:


-ko

head

-ko (front vowel harmony variant -kö, linguistic notation -kO)

From Proto-Finnic *-ko, probably ultimately from Proto-Uralic *ko-.

Onko hän täällä? (on > + -ko)

Täälläkö hän on? (täällä + -kö)

Tuleeko hän laivalla? (tulee > + -ko)

Millä sitten - veneelläkö? (veneellä + -kö)

Näkeekö hän? (näkee > + -kö)

Pitäisikö hänen tulla tänne? (pitäisi > + -kö)

(enclitic) Turns a clause interrogative. It is appended to the element of the clause that is questioned most. English equivalents include the normal ways of forming an interrogative statement without using an interrogative pronoun, such as the verb "do", inversion of the word order and intonation.

En tiedä, tuleeko hän.

En tiedä, näkeekö hän.

(enclitic) In indirect questions, -ko/-kö appended to the verb corresponds to the conjunctions if and whether in English.

-kö

the same particle in words with front vowel harmony

Pukeutuikohan hän tarpeeksi lämpimästi tänä aamuna?

I wonder if he put enough clothes on this morning.

Meniköhän hän kouluun tänä aamuna?

I wonder if he went to school this morning.

(enclitic) With the particle -han/-hän attached to the topic of discussion, it expresses "I wonder if".

Emmeköhän me jotenkuten tule toimeen.

(enclitic) With the negative verb (en, et, ei, emme, ette, eivät) and the particle -han/-hän, expresses "I suppose".

Olikko millon tulossa käymään?

(enclitic, colloquial) In a question with an interrogative word.


-ko

Töö-ko meille avita.

1936, D. I. Efimov, Lukukirja: Inkeroisia alkușkouluja vart (ensimäine osa), Leningrad: Riikin Ucebno-pedagogiceskoi Izdateljstva, page 12:


kite

Kite yo pale.


-kin

From Proto-Finnic *-gik, from *-ka + suffix (possibly lative *-ik). Cognate to Estonian -gi, Votic -tši. The final -n is by analogy with -kaan. The form *-gik was historically standard, and variation is found in some lexicalized terms (e.g. jotain ~ jotakin). The strong grade -k- was originally only used after consonants. Probably also related to Erzya -ке (-ke) in секе (śeke, “the same”), неке (ńeke, “the same (plural)”).

Minäkin söin tänään jäätelöä.

Also I ate ice-cream today. (I wasn't the only one who ate it.)

(Minä) söin tänäänkin jäätelöä.

I ate ice-cream also today. (I also ate it on other days.)

(Minä) söin tänään jäätelöäkin.

I ate also ice-cream today. (I also ate other things.)

Oliko siellä montakin ihmistä?

(appended to any other word than a verb) also, too

Minulla ei ole nälkä, mutta söinkin juuri jäätelöä.

I'm not hungry, but I did just eat some ice cream.

Minulla ei pitänyt olla nälkä, mutta söinkin juuri jäätelöä.

I wasn't supposed to be hungry, but I just ate some ice cream anyway.

Minun piti mennä kauppaan, mutta meninkin kapakkaan.

I was supposed to go to the store, but I went to the bar instead.

"Kuinka sait tavarat ulos kaupasta? Eihän sinulla ollut rahaa!" "Minä maksoinkin luottokortilla."

"How did you get the items out of the store? You didn't have any money, did you?" "[Well,] I paid with a credit card."

Bussi tulikin taas myöhässä.

Vaikka osasinkin jo suurimman osan opetetuista asioista, kurssi oli silti kiinnostava.

Even though I already knew most of the things taught, the course was still interesting.

(appended to a verb) though, anyway, still, nonetheless, nevertheless; often not translated at all, used to underline an action

Hän meni kuuluisaan kouluun ja hyvään menikin.

He went to a famous school, and a good one at that.

at that (in addition to what has been said; furthermore; moreover)

Minäkin osaisin tehdä tämän!

Kuka ikinä onkin, hän yrittää vain saada huomiosi.

Whoever that person is, they are just trying to get your attention.

-ever (when used with a verb that has an interrogative pronoun, often with ikinä for emphasis)

Eikö olekin kaunis?

Used to form rhetorical questions or questions for which the speaker is seeking to have their opinion confirmed.


-u

(possibly) Gothic: -𐌿 (-u)

Possibly from Pre-Germanic *-we, from Proto-Indo-European *-wē, which would make it cognate to Latin -ve, Ancient Greek ἤ (ḗ), Tocharian B wa and Sanskrit वा (vā).

Added to the end of a word in a phrase (usually the first word) to make it a question.


þe

From Proto-Germanic *þa, from Proto-Indo-European *tó.

Ne fyrhteð þa þe on synnum lyfiað. ― Do not fear those who live in sin. (Ælfwine's Prayerbook)

sōhte seledrēoriġ · sinces bryttan,
hwǣr iċ feor oþþe nēah · findan meahte
þone þe in meoduhealle · mīne wisse

sought hall-sad a giver of treasure,
where I far or near could find
who in a mead-hall would know my men


tag

Alternative form of tas (“completion particle”)


chyba nie

(idiomatic) perhaps no (delicate no; used in politely declining)


chyba tak

(idiomatic) maybe so (statement of acceptance, but with some uncertainty)


raczej nie

(idiomatic) rather not (used as a polite refusal)


może nie

(idiomatic) perhaps no, perhaps not used in politely refusing or declining


być może

/bɘt͡ɕ ˈmɔ.ʐɛ/


всё-таки

[ˈfsʲɵtəkʲɪ]

still, all the same, nevertheless, for all that (with a tone of regret)


t'

prevocalic form of té (past tense marker)


-si

Inherited from Old Czech -si, from Proto-Slavic *si. Cognate with Slovak -si.

indicates that something is indefinite or uncertain


-a

Liburua ekarri duzuia?

(Navarro-Lapurdian) Used to form yes/no questions.


pala

Ikaw pala!

expressing sudden realization; indication of surprise.


circa

Na świecie żyje circa 9 mld ludzi.

There are circa 9 billion people in the world.

(literary) circa, nearly, almost (in close approximation)


ma

Singlish is acceptable in Singapore mah

1998 April 24, viken, “tcs shows”, in sg.rec.tv (Usenet):

I dun have mah.

2015 April 17, Jalelah Abu Baker, “What's the difference between 'lah' and 'lor': Poet Gwee Li Sui's take on nuances of Singlish goes viral”, in The Straits Times:

"I was already 32, so must get married mah," he says, using the Singlish word often used to express something which is obvious.

2017 April 30, Wong Kim Hoh, “It Changed My Life: Migrant worker goes from painting condos to boss of own company”, in The Straits Times:


ma

Unknown. Compare Ge'ez -መ (-mma) (emphatic enclitic).

𒌓𒈠𒈠 [ūmamma]

(enclitic) used to stress single words, especially the predicate of nominal clauses


ma

maguta ma mbarĩki


ma

Oja ma haku.

separates the topic from the rest of the sentence.


ma

Nechilwijket ma nikinkwepili musta

They told me to return it to them tomorrow

Tikajkawat ma seseya pal tikwat

We leave it to cool down so we can eat it

Ma shina kiuni!

Clipping of maka. (Negative imperative marker)


ma

Inherited from Prakrit 𑀫𑀸 (mā), from Ashokan Prakrit 𑀫𑀸 (mā), from Sanskrit मा (mā).


'm

Dwyt ti’m yn cofio Macsen.

(colloquial) Contraction of ddim (“not”).


znowu

after all, I guess; used to lessen the effect

I beg your pardon, pardon me (used to express irritation at a suggestion that the speaker cannot agree with)


요

For the verb-final particle, see the entry at 요 (-yo).


genre

From Old French gen(d)re, borrowed from Latin genere. Sense 6 is a semantic loan from English gender.

semantic loan

Je suis genre rarement énervé.


かな

Combination of か (ka, interrogative particle) + な (na, mild exclamatory particle).
First attested in the late-Edo period as an apparent shift in sense from the Old Japanese and classical usage, wherein the な (na) came to express more a sense of mild doubt rather than admiration (see that section for more).

com

彼は怪しい人かな。

まあ、そうかな。

expresses a question with a feeling of worry

(in the form ～ないかな (...nai ka na)) expresses affirmation: I hope, I wish


かな

From Old Japanese. First attested in the early 700s.
From か (ka, particle indicating doubt or uncertainty) + な (na, mild exclamatory particle).
Displaced particle かも (ka mo) around the early-Middle Japanese stage.

善き哉！

(Classical Japanese or literary) expresses wonder or postulation on the part of the speaker


なら

Form of ならば (naraba) with its final mora deleted, treated as the conditional of だ (da) in traditional Japanese grammar.

暑いなら、エアコンをつけて。

If it's hot, turn on the air conditioner.

君が行くなら僕も行こう。

適度な緊張ならいいが、過度の緊張は脳の大敵だ。

Tekido na kinchō nara ii ga, kado no kinchō wa nō no taiteki da.

If it's just a moderate amount of nervousness, it can be good, but too much can be your worst enemy.

辞書なら ○○。

If it's a dictionary you need, choose ○○. / ○○, the only dictionary you'll ever need.

A conditional particle appended to a noun or the plain form of a verb or adjective.

花なら桜だ。

As for flowers, it is the cherry blossom.

風景ならスイスに及ぶ国はない。

As for landscape, there isn't a country comparable to Switzerland.


å

From Old Norse at (“by, to”), whence also at and ad.

Å løpe


å

From Old Norse at (“by, to”), whence also at and åt.

aa

Etymologies 2-6, obsolete typography (pre-1917)

Dei er vanskelege å sjå.


å

Men det har varit svårt för småpartierna å nå ut i år med frågor som […]

2023 November 2, 11:12 from the start, in Rapport 19:30, spoken by Andreas Öbrink:

But it has been difficult for the small parties to reach out this year with issues such as […]

(colloquial speech) Contraction of och (“to”).


-s

Inherited from Old Norse -s, originally the genitive singular ending of a-stem nouns. Cognate with Swedish -s.

Danmarks dronning

Københavns snefald

Used to form genitive/possessive phrases, attached to the last word in a noun phrase.


-s

Contracted from the second-person singular pronoun sa, sä (sinä in modern standard language), but no longer tied to being used in second-person.

Kuules nyt! (addressing one person. quite an established expression of frustration, speaker very impatient)

Kuulkaas nyt! (addressing many people, same tone as above)

Tees nämä tehtävät. (addressing one person, tone less impatient)

When appended to a second-person singular or plural imperative, gives the command or request slightly rude or impatient tone—often with different verbs and different independent particles adjacent, the tone is different.

Laitapas lautaset pöytään.

When appended to the particle -pa/-pä that is appended to a second-person imperative, gives the command or request a slightly more persuasive or inspiring tone.

Jaksatkos sinä?

Eikös Saara opiskele oikeustieteitä?

Mainly in informal contexts: a particle appended to an interrogative suffix -ko/-kö of the verb conjugated in order to bring the conversation partner or a person outside the conversation, talked about, emotionally closer to the speaker, or to create familiarity into the conversation; also to express that closeness or familiarity—sometimes very difficult to translate well into English, in some cases corresponds to tag questions.

Tehdääs tämä huomenna.

(colloquial) appended to the shortened impersonal indicative present form (-n omitted) to soften the command or request or to make it more persuasive.

Mikäs se Suomen pääkaupunki olikaan?

Kukas heistä olikaan sinun lapsesi?

Softens interrogative words, particularly mikä, kuka and their inflected and derived forms, such as when the speaker expects the person addressed to know the answer.


-s

Inherited from Proto-Slavic *si. Cognates include Polish -ś and Slovincian -sz.

chto (“who”) + -s → chtos (“someone”)

interrogative pronoun
interrogative pronoun#English

indefinite pronoun
indefinite pronoun#English

appended to relative/interrogative pronouns to form indefinite pronouns


-s

From Danish -s, from Old Norse -s, originally the genitive singular ending of a-stem nouns.


500 @ 5円


(Internet slang) Alternative form of で (de, “at”, indicating a location at which something happens)


@ 5 個

@ 1時間で寝る

(slang, gaming) Alternative form of あと (ato, “remaining”)


bide

Galdu bide gara.


barren

Jada dakit barren!

A particle used to give certainty or emphasis.


oo

A rendering of Ancient Greek ὦ (ô, interjection).


oo

"Oo, yay," ikido, "azhigwa onjigaawan iniw mitigoon."

"Oh, my," she said, "those trees are running now."


sial

(Singlish, Manglish) Alternative form of sia


pol

sat i pol

tri i pol mjeseca


cam

Cần cam lai cần cam nọi.

Some people have too much, some people have too little.

(topicalizer) as for ..., it is/does/will ...


gala

Gala anukwali.


wale

Used to modify the preceding word only, just, alone; quite, very; simply, for free, without reason


jo

Cognate with Icelandic jú, Swedish jo. Equivalent to standard High German doch.

Woids es ned na fuat heid? Jo, owa's wedda is a weng schlecht.
Wolltet ihr nicht noch heute furt? Doch, aber das Wetter is etwas schlecht.

yes (in response to a negative question).


jo

Borrowed from German jo. Compare Slovincian jo (“yes”), Silesian ja (“yes”), regional Polish ja (“yes”).

Jo, mògã to zrobic.

Jo, jô jem tam béł.


jo

jo vairāk naudas, jo labāk


jo

From Middle High German ja, possibly via Yiddish יאָ (yo). Compare Latvian jā.


jo

yes (word used to show agreement or acceptance)


jo

(colloquial or dialectal, Chełmno-Dobrzyń) yeah, yep


jo

Borrowed from German ja (“yes; yes!”). Compare Kashubian jo (“yes”), Silesian ja (“yes”), regional Polish ja (“yes”).


tas

Noj tas lawm.

particle used to indicate completion of an action: done, finished, completed

zoo tas tas

an unrestricted post-verbal intensifier commonly duplicated when used


vis

nav vis

es neiešu vis


char

of the following verb (triggers-lenition)

Char dhún mé é.

Char chuala mé é.

níor

used in Munster Irish, Connacht Irish, and some varieties of Ulster Irish


nag

From Proto-Celtic *nekʷe, a combination of Proto-Indo-European *ne (negative particle) and *-kʷe (“and”); compare Latin neque.


oczywiście

/ɔ.t͡ʂɘˈviɕ.t͡ɕɛ/

/ɔ.t͡ʂɨˈviɕ.t͡ɕɛ/

Inherited from Old Polish oczywiście. By surface analysis, oczywisty + -ie. Compare Kashubian òczëwisce.


nope

→ Italian: nop

→ Portuguese: nop

→ Spanish: nop

Representing no pronounced with the mouth snapped closed at the end. Compare yep, welp, ope, and yup.

"Is my son here, Clarence?" asked Roger Oakley. "Nope. The whistle ain't blowed yet."

1856, Sidney George Fisher, Charles Edward Fisher, Kanzas and the Constitution, page 97:

"No," from Tom, ending the word with so decided a pressure of the lips that it sounded like "nope."

“Aunt Kat? And was Aunt Kat your only relation? Have you no father nor mother?” “Nope. Never had none ‘cept Aunt Kat. Her hull name was Katrina. She wuz Dutch she wuz."

1890, Werner's Readings and Recitations, E.S. Werner, page 50:

1: I will not dishonour my country's speech by leaving off the last syllables of words, 2: I will say a good American "yes" and "no" in place of an Indian grunt "um-hum" and "nup-um" or a foreign "ya" or "yeh" and "nope"[…]

c. 1930, The Detroit Educational Bulletin, Detroit (Michigan) Board of Education, page 13:

Nope. Don't know as I do.

2006, Charlotte Hudson Ewing, Red Land, AuthorHouse, →ISBN, page 54:


nang

Wala nang ibang hahanapin pa.

combination of na and -ng; more; already

Tumakbo nang mabilis ang bata.

used to connect adverbs of manner or degree to the word they modify

Tumakbo nang tumakbo ang bata hanggang siya'y napagod.

The child ran and ran until he became tired.


aw

yes; used to show agreement or acceptance.


bah

I think you should go see a doctor ba.

(Manglish, Singlish, rare) Used for emphasis; softens a suggestion.


mem

KROGSTAD. Vere ne? Ŝajnas al mi, ke vi mem ĵus diris —

1998, Henrik Ibsen, translated by Odd Tangerud, Puphejmo : Dramo en tri aktoj:

KROGSTAD. Truly not? It seems to me, that you yourself just said —


hoc

Inherited from Old Catalan hoc, from Latin hoc (“this”). Cognate with Occitan òc and partially with French oui.

(obsolete) yes (affirmation; commonly used to respond affirmatively to a question)


mai

From Proto-Polynesian *mai, from Proto-Oceanic, from Proto-Malayo-Polynesian *maʀi.

Mai mai mai!

E hoʻolohe mai ana lākou i ka moʻolelo.


mai

From Proto-Polynesian *mai. Cognates include Hawaiian mai and Samoan mai.

Indicates the motion of the action of the preceding verb towards the speaker; towards, to


sia

— You can't find your pencils? Maybe someone stole them.
— For what sia?

[…] Really disappointed siah […] The damage is done and no explanation will be accepted...... damn stupid!

2004, joshley, soc.culture.singapore (Usenet):

(Singlish, Manglish) Tagged at the end of a sentence to express discontent, shock, exhaustion or exasperation.


eh

From Proto-Indo-European *h₁eǵʰs (“out”). Cognates include Latin ex and Ancient Greek ἐξ (ex).


tai

Derived from an unattested neuter form *ta, from Proto-Balto-Slavic *tas, taˀ, ta (“that”); see tas for more. Evidence for a Common Baltic neuter form *ta (matching Proto-Slavic *to) can be observed in Old Prussian stas, sta(i), sta and the Latvian particle ta-. The suffix -aĩ is apparently formed by analogy with kai (“when, while”); see this entry for more.

Taĩ và kur̃ jìs!

Õ dabar̃ taĩ àš bėdojè.

(emphatic) puts additional emphasis on the subject of the clause; now that's … !; so that's … !


alla

Alla taamna.


maka

Maka shimutalukan kalijtik


woo

Sikke woo alaa

Mi hoolike woo si mi yiirii gite am

I wouldn't believe it unless I saw it with my own eyes


там

Inherited from Old East Slavic тамо (tamo), from Proto-Slavic *tamo.

inh+

На него́ есть, там, поло́ски.

То есть, ты, наприме́р, мог непра́вильно сказа́ть, там: «Я зову́т». ― To jestʹ, ty, naprimér, mog neprávilʹno skazátʹ, tam: «Ja zovút». ― So, for example, you could incorrectly say, you know, "Я зовут".

Filler word, generally before or after stating some example or quality that required thought to find the best word(s)


dai

Inherited from Proto-Austronesian *qazi with metathesis.


dim

dim (mutation mutation-radical)
ddim (mutation mutation-soft)
nim (mutation mutation-nasal)

From Middle Welsh dim, cognate with the rare Old Irish dim (“something, anything”) (which may be a Brythonic loanword), with further etymology uncertain. Matasović derives the word from Proto-Celtic *dis-smi-, dissimilated from Proto-Indo-European *dus-smi- (literally “bad one”). Alternatively, Morris-Jones hypothesizes the original meaning was “share, portion” and derives the word from Proto-Celtic *dīsman, from Proto-Indo-European *deh₂y- (“to share”).
Development of the particle sense (“not”) is an instance of Jespersen's Cycle.


hum

head

hum (discourse, Perso-Arabic spelling ہُم)


ku

From Proto-Albanian *ku, from Proto-Indo-European *kʷu (“where”). Cognate to Proto-Baltic *kur (“where”) (Lithuanian kur̃ (“id”), kur (“id”), Latvian kur), Proto-Slavic *kъde (“where”) (Old Church Slavonic къде (kŭde, “id”), Russian где (gde)) and Sanskrit कुह (kúha, “where”) (cf. also Sanskrit कू (kū́, “id”), Avestan 𐬐𐬎𐬛𐬁 (kudā), 𐬐𐬏 (kū)).
See also Albanian kur (“when”).

i

where to where whither (used repeatedly, to accentuate significant differences between two objects)


ku

Risto oli puhunu Pekan kaa useemmin ku (mitä) päiväkirja antaa ymmärtää.

Risto had been talking with Pekka more often than the diary lets one understand.


ku

Ku ba ndlopfu hi xibakele.


meh

Really meh? ― Really? I don’t think so.

This one your one meh? ― Is this really yours?

"Huh? At this hour? Really meh?" He couldn't believe his own ears.

2020, Yasser Khan, Property Agent Secrets: The Underground Playbook For Growing Your Property Agent Business in 2021 & Beyond, →ISBN, page 123:

“Nice meh?” I would think sourly.

2013 October 7, Tee Hun Ching, The Sunday Times, Singapore, page 12:

You got send [e-mail] meh? I never receive leh.

2010 August 22, Fiona Chan, The Sunday Times, Singapore, page 13:

Final question particle expressing skepticism.


ki

From Proto-Katuic *kii (“that”). Cognate with Eastern Bru ki (“that, then, there”), Semelai ke ("that"), Besisi ke ("that"), and possibly Vietnamese cái (general classifier, focus marker).

cog

Along ngcốh ki két.

(literally, “As for that tree, [it's] small.”)

(Pahi Tamprin) used as link in topic-comment constructions, "topicalizer".


ki

(subjunctive) Subjunctive clause particle expressing obligation, wish, or permission.


ki

Alternative form of kò (“not”) (used before í)


naw

A: A you tief mi sweetie. B: Naw, a nuh me dweet.

A: You stole my candy. B: No, I didn't do it.

“"Naw, mi nuh know her ... Why?" […]”

2012, Jason Stephenson, “Short Story - Stop And Stare”, in The Jamaica Gleaner (in English):


'o

Placed at the beginning of nominative phrases to signify that they are declarative


ora

From *wora, from Proto-Malayo-Polynesian *wada (“to be, to appear”). This adverb had been originally used to meant "it appears that someone is (not) doing something". However, the notion has been lost as it was completely integrated to the standard language and acquired the default current meaning of "not". It is similar to aggressive mood in colloquial Finnish (see also Jespersen's cycle). Cognates include Indonesian ada, Aklanon waea', and Tagalog wala.


este

Borrowed from Spanish este (“uh; um”, interjection/filler).

bor+

Pupunta ako sa panaderya, este, restawran.

I am going to the bakery, I mean, the restaurant.


'a

Say, these stripes, stripes sure don’t worry me. But these chains, chains goin’ ’a kill me dead.

1955, Russell Ames, “The Open Road, the Chain Gang, and the Jail”, in The Story of American Folk Song (The Listener’s Music Library), New York, N.Y.: Grosset & Dunlap, published 1960, →OCLC, page 248:

Well, this one’s ’ere all right. Captain’s wife or somefink, the mate says. Least, that’s what I think he’s tryin’ ’a say, because he can’t speak no English.

2009, Jennifer Worth, “The Captain’s Daughter”, in Farewell to the East End, London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, →ISBN, page 237:

So while we’re all distracted tryin’ ’a fix it all – that’s when they strike.

2014, R[oger] N. Morris, chapter 11, in The Dark Palace (A Silas Quinn Mystery; 3), Sutton, Surrey: Crème de la Crime, →ISBN, Part 1 (Love), page 50:


que

Inherited from Latin quid (“what”), but usurping all the roles of Latin quod. Cognate with English who.


nez

(colloquial) use to add uncertainty or obscurity to statement

(colloquial) use in combinations like nez vai, nez no kurienes, nez cik, nez kā and so on


gi

turns the preceding word into a nominative