馬

CJKV/code

Sino-Xenic (馬):
* → Japanese: 馬(ば) (ba)
* → Korean: 마(馬) (ma)
* → Vietnamese: mã (馬, “(xiangqi) horse; (chess) knight”)

desctree

→ Proto-Tai: *maːꟲ (“horse”)
Northern Tai
Bouyei: max
Zhuang: max
Central Tai
Tày: mạ
Nùng: mạ
Nong Zhuang: max
Proto-Southwestern Tai:
Ahom: 𑜉𑜠 (ma), 𑜉𑜡 (mā), 𑜉𑜡𑜠 (māa)
Thai: ม้า (máa)
Northern Thai: ᨾ᩶ᩣ
Lao: ມ້າ (mā)
Lü: ᦙᦱᧉ (maa²)
Tai Dam: ꪣ꫁ꪱ
Shan: မႃႉ (mâ̰a)
Tai Nüa: ᥛᥣᥳ (mȧa)

desc

→ Thai: เบ๊ (bée, “horse”) (via Teochew)

Cursive script (East Asia)
Semi-cursive script

Pictogram (象形) – a horse with its head facing the left, showing a flowing mane in the wind. In the bronze inscriptions, the head was often simplified into an eye (目 (mù)). The legs eventually evolved into four dots (灬 (huǒ), unrelated to 火 (huǒ)).
Contrast with 鹿 (lù, “deer”), which saw a very different development, and 𢊁 (as in 薦 /荐 (jiàn)), which is a hybrid: it has the legs of 馬 (灬 (huǒ)) but the head of 鹿 (lù).
“Horse” – from Proto-Sino-Tibetan *k-m-raŋ ~ s-raŋ. The sense of “big” is derived from “horse”; compare the English uses of horse.
For the insect prefix sense, see 螞 /蚂. It has converged with the sense of “big”.
The surname is popularly known to be prevalent among Hui Muslims, where it is likely derived from Arabic مُحَمَّد (muḥammad, “Muhammad”), although the surname 馬 itself predates Islam.

马
𫠉
傌
𢒗
𢒠
𢒧
𩡬
𩡮
抹
碼

阿胡拉·馬茲達

Āhúlā Mǎzīdá

阿胡拉·马兹达

Āhúlā Mǎzīdá

馬斯特里赫特

Mǎsītèlǐhètè

(Cantonese) horse race (Classifier: 場／场 c)

大馬

大马

新馬華語

新马华语

short for 馬來西亞／马来西亚 (Mǎláixīyà, “Malaysia”)

馬來西亞 馬來西亞#Chinese

马来西亚 马来西亚#Chinese

(Mainland China) short for 馬克思／马克思 (Mǎkèsī, “Marx”)

Used in transcription.
short for 馬克思／马克思 (Mǎkèsī, “Marx”)

short for 馬列主義／马列主义 (Mǎlièzhǔyì, “Marxism-Leninism”)

馬列主義 馬列主義#Chinese

马列主义 马列主义#Chinese

馬爾代夫

马尔代夫

馬達加斯加

马达加斯加

阿拉巴馬

阿拉巴马

馬賽

马赛

馬尼拉

马尼拉

馬利亞

马利亚

馬克士威

马克士威

馬丁・路德

马丁・路德


西

CJKV/code

Sino-Xenic (西):
* → Japanese: 西(さい) (sai); 西(せい) (sei)
* → Korean: 서(西) (seo)
* → Vietnamese: tây (西)

ja-r

Japanese: 西(シャー) (shā, “west wind (mahjong tile)”)

Pictogram (象形) – a bag or basket, borrowed for phonetic value. Compare 東 (OC *toːŋ, “bundle > east”), 束 and 鹵. Traditionally explained as a pictogram of a bird settling into its nest, which by analogy with the setting of the sun means “west”. This etymology has been disputed (Sears), but Sagart (2004) stands by it.
See also the top component of 票, originally two hands holding an object vaguely similar to a bag, basket or nest.
The word is traditionally reconstructed to have a /*s/-initial in Old Chinese, e.g. /*sɯːl/ in Zhengzhang (2003). However, recent scholarship has suggested that the Old Chinese initial should instead be reconstructed as /*s-nˤ/, one of the reasons being 西 appears to be the phonetic in 迺 (nǎi), the archaic graphic variant of 乃 (OC *nɯːʔ). The new reconstruction, /*s-nˤər/ in Baxter and Sagart (2014), also accounts for how 西 can be the phonetic in 哂 (shěn, “to smile”). For more information, see Sagart (2004), Baxter and Sagart (2014) and Nohara (2018).
In light of the new construction with the initial consonant cluster /*s-nˤ/, the possibilities of the etymology of 西, aside from being cognate with 棲／栖 (qī, “to roost; to rest”) (B-S OC /*s-nˤər/), include:
* Related to Tibetan ནེར་བ (ner ba, “to sink; to fall gradually”) (Unger, 1990).
* Related to Chepang नेलःसा (nelʔ‑, “to go down; to sink”), which may be the same etymon as the Written Tibetan word above (Schuessler, 2007).
* Related to the root 尼 (nǐ, “to stop”) (OC /*nˤərʔ/ for intransitive form, /*nˤərʔ-s/ for transitive form in Baxter and Sagart (2014)).
* Related to Tibetan མནལ (mnal, “sleep”) and Burmese နား (na:, “to rest; to stop for a while”) (Hill, 2019).
* An Austroasiatic nominal n-infix derivative from the root "go down", as in Old Mon cnis (“ghat”) < Old Mon cis (“to go down”) , with Proto-Austroasiatic *tsn- > Proto-Sinitic *sn-. If true, then this etymon literally means "the place where one goes down to" > Mon "ghat" > OC "nest, west" and its base form is 濟 (OC *ʔsliːls) via Austroasiatic (Schuessler, 2007).

cog

加西亞

加西亚

印度尼西亞

印度尼西亚

密西西比

切爾西

切尔西


車

/t͡sʰø²¹³⁻⁵⁵/

/t͡sʰø²¹³⁻⁵⁵/

Pictogram (象形) – originally a carriage seen from above. In the oracle bone script, there were large wheels on both sides and a sun shade on the top. Later, when Chinese characters were written vertically, the wheels on both sides were simply drawn in strokes and the loading area was marked with a 田 (OC *l'iːŋ). Therefore, it is important to understand that the current character, 車 (OC *kʰlja, *kla) is a vertical depiction of a carriage.
Note that 倝 (OC *kaːns) and 朝 (OC *ʔr'ew, *r'ew) are not derived from 車 (OC *kʰlja, *kla).
Perhaps a loan from an Indo-European language because the horse and chariot were introduced into China around 1200 BC from Inner Asia; compare Tocharian A kukäl, Tocharian B kokale (“wagon; cart”) (Mair, 1990, Bauer, 1994), from Proto-Tocharian *kuk(ä)le, from Proto-Indo-European *kʷékʷlos, a form of *kʷel- (“to turn”). Cognate with English wheel, Ancient Greek κύκλος (kúklos), Lithuanian kaklas (“neck”), etc.
Sagart and Baxter (2025) specifically pinpoint descent from some reflex of Proto-Indo-Iranian *čakrám. They also suppose that the variation of pronunciations could be attributed to separate borrowing events from Indo-Aryan and Iranian.
An older variant survives in Mandarin 軲轆／轱辘 (gūlu, “wheel”) (Bauer, 1994). Alternatively, the word is a derivation by k-prefix from 舁 (OC *la, “to lift”) (Baxter and Sagart, 1998); compare the semantic parallel in Tibetan ཐེག་པ (theg pa, “vehicle; carriage”) (OC *kʰljaʔ, *kʰljas) and 居 (OC *kas) (Schuessler, 2007). Pronunciation 2 is traditionally regarded as the older pronunciation.
The sense of lewd content is derived from 老司機 /老司机 (lǎosījī).


月

CJKV/code

Sino-Xenic (月):
* → Japanese: 月(げつ) (getsu); 月(がつ) (gatsu); 月(がち) (gachi)
* → Okinawan: 月(ぐゎち) (gwachi)
* → Korean: 월(月) (wol)
* → Vietnamese: nguyệt (月), ngoạt (月)

→ Bouyei: nguad (“month”)

→? Thai: งวด (ngûuat, “appointed time”)

→ Zhuang: nyied (“moon; month”)

/ᵑɡut̚³²⁻²¹/

/ᵑɡut̚³²⁻²¹⁵/

/ᵑɡut̚³²⁻²¹/

/ᵑɡut̚³²⁻²¹⁵/

Pictogram (象形) – pictographic representation of a crescent moon. Related to 夕 (xī) and interchangeable in the past, but both are unrelated to 多, in which it represents two pieces of meat stylized as 夕.
Unrelated to:
* 前, in which it represents a boat 舟 (歬 > 𠝣 > 𣦃 > 前);
* 朕, in which it represents a boat again (𦩎 > 𦨶 > 朕)
* 青, in which it represents cinnabar 丹 (𤯞 > 靑 > 青);
* 赢, in which it represents the elongated face of a kind of dragon, perhaps a Panlong;
* 祭 and 將, in which it represents sacrificed meat stylized as 𱼀;
* 然, in which it represents dog meat (肰).
* 肖 and 有, in which it represents just meat.
From Proto-Sino-Tibetan *s-ŋʷ(j)a-t (“moon; star”), whence also Magar [Term?] (gya hot, “moon”), Proto-Lolo-Burmese *mwatᴸ (“star; moon”) (whence Lahu məʔ-kə (“star”)), Drung gurmet (“star”) (Matisoff, 1980; LaPolla, 1987; STEDT).
Various alternative etymologies have also been proposed:
* Unger (1992) proposes cognation with Tibetan ངོ (ngo, “waxing and waning moon; half moon”) (as in མར་ངོ (mar ngo, “waning moon”) and ཡར་ངོ (yar ngo, “waxing moon”)), which Schuessler (2007) connects to Proto-Sino-Tibetan *s-ŋow (“white; light colour”). However, Sagart (1999) points out that the Tibetan word may be analyzed as a derivative of Tibetan ངོ (ngo, “face”), which would mean the semantic connection between “moon” and “face” had to occur either independently in Chinese and Tibetan or in Proto-Sino-Tibetan; it also requires positing a suffix -t in Chinese.
* Pulleybank (1995a) proposes another etymology based on the glyph for 名 (míng) (reconstructed as *màŋʲ), which he analyses as a phono-semantic compound of phonetic 夕 (xī, “moon”) and semantic 口 (kǒu, “mouth”). He suggests that the phonetic component represents a lost word *màŋʲ (“moon”), and reconstructs 月 as *mŋʲ (consonantal frame of “moon”) + *-at (suffix) > *ŋʲʷat. However, there are more straightforward ways of explaining the glyph origin of 名 (míng) (see there), which would nullify the hypothesis of the lost word.
* Related to 越 (“to pass over; to cross over”) in some way.
** Mei (1979) derives 月 from 越 (OC **gjot > *gwjat): **N-gjot > *ngwjat. Also in this proposed word family is 歲 (OC **s-gjots > *skwjadh, “year”). The semantics of this word family is centred around "to pass; to elapse". While Matisoff (1980) seems supportive of this word family, STEDT reconstructs Proto-Tibeto-Burman *grwat (“to travel; to go through”) for 越 and 歲 /岁 (suì), separate from the root for 月.
** Ferlus (2012) reconstructs the Old Chinese as *ŋ.wat and puts it in a word family formed from a Chinese root *wat, having a meaning of "circularity" or "circular boundary". This proposed word family includes 越 (OC *wat, “to cross over”), as in "to cross the enclosure of the village", and 外 (OC *ŋ.wat-s, “outside”), as in "out of the enclosure of the village".


愛

CJKV/code

Sino-Xenic (愛):
* → Japanese: 愛(あい) (ai)
* → Korean: 애(愛) (ae)
* → Vietnamese: ái (愛)

→? Proto-Hlai: *ʔəːp (“to love”)

Originally 㤅 (xì), a phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *qɯːds): phonetic 旡 (OC *kɯds) + semantic 心 (“heart”). However, the phonetic component indicates somebody kneeling with an open mouth, perhaps, trilling.
As early as the Qin dynasty, a meaningless component 夊 (suī, “foot”) was added to the bottom of the character, as with some other characters depicting people. Compare 憂 /忧 (yōu) (from 㥑). Hence, the character changed into 𢙴.
Further corruption of the top component of 𢙴 turned the original phonetic 旡 (jì) into ⿱爫冖.
Based on Baxter's (1992) Old Chinese reconstruction /*ʔɨts/, STEDT suggests that it is from Proto-Sino-Tibetan *ŋ-(w)aːj (“to copulate; to love; to be gentle”). Compare Proto-Karen *ʔai (“to love”), whence Pa'o Karen [script needed] (ʔái, “to love”), S'gaw Karen အဲၣ် (ʼeh̀, “to love”); Southern Bai e⁴⁴ (“love”); Mizo hma-ngaih (“to love, to like”); Jingpho nwai (“to respect, to love”), ngwi (“to be gentle”); Burmese ငွေ့ (ngwe., “to be gentle, moderate”). The Chinese word is related to a Tibeto-Burman allofam without initial *ŋ-. STEDT states that an Old Chinese reconstruction of /*ʔɨjs/ for 愛 is also possible because Old Chinese rhyming does not provide direct evidence of contacts with *-t.
However, Baxter and Sagart (2014) reconstructs /*[q]ˁə[p]-s/, which ends in *-p-s instead. The Old Chinese contrast between *-p-s and *-t-s was lost at a late stage of Old Chinese. The final *-p is not reflected in the Tibeto-Burman comparandum provided by STEDT, making the likelihood that the Chinese form is related to the rest very low (Sagart, 2019). Behr (2016) suggests a derivation from a verbal root meaning "to draw in; to inhale; to suck in", relating it to 吸 (OC *qʰ(r)əp, “to inhale”), 欱 (OC *qʰˁ[ə]p, “to sip”), 愾 (OC *qʰəp-s, “to sigh with regret”), 僾 (OC *qˁəp-s, “to pant”), 氣 (OC *C.qʰəp-s, “vapour; breath”).
;"to maltreat, to abuse"

cog

爱
㤅
𢙴
𢛭
𢜤
𤔠
𤔤
𢟪
𢖻
要

他愛說話。

他爱说话。

我不愛吃豬肉。

我不爱吃猪肉。

You love a man and wish him to live; you hate him and wish him to die.

The Analects of Confucius, c. 475 – 221 BCE, translated based on James Legge's version

愛之欲其生，惡之欲其死。

爱之欲其生，恶之欲其死。

What I like about the lotus is the fact that it grows out of pond dregs yet is not caught in the filth.

1063, Zhou Dunyi, 《愛蓮說》 (On the Love for the Lotus)

予獨愛蓮之出淤泥而不染。

予独爱莲之出淤泥而不染。


間

Ideogrammic compound (會意 /会意): 門 (“door”) + 日 (“sun”). Originally 閒, moonlight (月) peeking through a door (門) – interstice; space.
The two pronunciations are related, with Pronunciation 2 (間 (OC *kreːns)) being the exoactive of Pronunciation 1 (間 (OC *kreːn)).
Related to:
* 隙 (OC *kʰraɡ, “crack; chink”), 澗 (OC *kreːns, *kraːns, “ravine; brook (between mountains)”) (Wang, 1982);
* 閒 (OC *ɡreːn, “lazy; leisure”) (Karlgren, 1957; Baxter, 1992).
Externally, likely related to Mizo kâr (“space between; interval”), Burmese ကြား (kra:, “in-between; interval; interim”), အကြား (a.kra:, “gap; break”) (Schuessler, 2007).


朝

CJKV/code

Sino-Xenic (朝):
* → Japanese: 朝(ちょう) (chō)
* → Korean: 조(朝) (jo)
* → Vietnamese: triêu (朝)

Guo Moruo
Han dynasty
Shuowen
Spring and Autumn period
Warring States period
bamboo and wooden slips

In the oracle bone script, it was an ideogrammic compound (會意 /会意): 2 or 4 屮 (“grass”) or even 木 (“tree”) + 日 (“sun”) + 月 (“moon”) – the sun rising above the ground while the waning moon is still in the sky – the morning.
In the bronze script, it was a compound of 𠦝 and a pictograph of a river (川 or 水) – this was possibly an original form for 潮 (OC *r'ew, “tide”). The river glyph may be a corruption of 月 due to association with tides or diurnal events. Chi (2010) considers such forms to be phono-semantic (形聲 /形声), where 𠦝 is the abbreviated form of the phonetic 朝 (OC *ʔr'ew, *r'ew). In the some late Western Zhou forms, 𠦝 was corrupted into a form resembling 車.
According to Guo Moruo, in the stone drum inscriptions (石鼓文 (shígǔwén), likely from the Spring and Autumn period) 㫃 was added (attached to 車), and the river glyph was replaced with 舟 (OC *tjɯw), which was interpreted as the phonetic component; the small seal script might have inherited from this form. Shuowen interpreted the fused components of 𠦝 and 㫃 as a semantic component 倝 (“dawn”). However, the accuracy of identification has been questioned; the character was a heavily weathered one in which the 㫃 identification was probably spurious and likely influenced by the Shuowen. Meanwhile, the 舟 component on the right remained somewhat legible.
The 舟 component remained in the bamboo and wooden slips of the Warring States period (see the table). In the clerical script since the Han dynasty, 舟 had been reverted to 月; it is unclear whether this was a remnant from 月 in the oracle bone script or a corruption of 舟 (as in 朕 < 𦩎 and many other characters). The current form is essentially inherited from the clerical script.
“Morning” > “perform the morning ceremony” > “to go/come to court; to have an audience”. Derivative: 潮 (OC *r'ew, “morning tide”).
Perhaps related to Thai เพรา (prao, “morning”) (Manomaivibool, 1975).


人

Sino-Xenic (人):
* → Japanese: 人(にん) (nin); 人(じん) (jin)
* → Korean: 인(人) (in)
* → Vietnamese: nhân (人)

Austroasiatic languages
Shang dynasty
Yueshi culture

Characters in the same phonetic series (人) (Zhengzhang, 2003)
Pictogram (象形) – side view of a standing man, highlighting an arm and a leg. Compare 大, 立 (lì), 卩, 夭, and 氏 according to one interpretation. See also the original version of 年.
亼 is similar but unrelated; it represents an open mouth flipped upside down and appears on top of characters such as 食, 金, 令, 龠, and 今.
It represents a roof in the characters 余, 茶, 舍, and 倉. It represents a flag on a flagpole in 㫃. Eventually, it represents two parallel mountain walls in 谷.
The stylized version to the left of the characters is 亻 (see also 千). Similar but unrelated to 彳.
Sagart (1999) relates it to Tibetan ཉེན (nyen, “relative”), from ཉེ (nye, “near”) + nominalizing suffix -n; if so, from Proto-Sino-Tibetan *nəj(ʔ) (“near”).
Schuessler (2007) proposes two etymologies:
* Same etymon as 仁 (OC *njin, “to be kind; to be good”), from Proto-Sino-Tibetan *s/k-niŋ (“heart; brain; mind”). The semantic association of 仁 with 人 was somewhat late, dated to Mencius's time; later on, 仁 would be usually interpreted as "humane, acting like a human being".
** If so, semantically parallel with Tibetan སེམས་ཅན (sems can, “living being, human, animal”, literally “possessor of mind”); and Latin animalis (“living, having soul”) from anima (“soul”).
* Related to Proto-Mon-Khmer *ɲaʔ ~ *ɲah (“person”) with a nominalizing suffix -n, from the auto-ethnonym of a hostile, possibly Austroasiatic-speaking, eastern people, whom the Sinitic-speaking Shang referred to as 人方 (OC *njin paŋ).

ncog

亻
𠆢
儿
𠂉
几
𠔽
𤯔
𦉫
寧
儂/侬
𠆧

吃得苦中苦，方為人上人 / 吃得苦中苦，方为人上人

chī de kǔ zhōng kǔ, fāng wéi rén shàng rén

就我所知，他人不錯。

就我所知，他人不错。

我不知道他是什麼人。

我不知道他是什么人。

keoi⁵ dou³ dai² hai⁶ me¹ jan⁴ lai⁴ gaa³?

佢到底係咩人嚟㗎？

佢到底系咩人嚟㗎？

佢個人好懶。

佢个人好懒。

physical, psychological or moral quality or condition; character; personality (Classifier: 份 c; 個／个 c)


人

University of Santo Tomas#Libraries and archives

The Min native word for “person”; used as a replacement character for 儂 /侬. It is historically attested for Hokkien in the Arte de la Lengua Chiõ Chiu (1620) and Dictionario Hispanico Sinicum (1626-1642). Use of 人 for Hokkien is recommended by Taiwan's Ministry of Education (ROC MOE).

亻
𠆢
儿
𠂉
几
𠔽
𤯔
𦉫
寧
儂/侬
𠆧

伊人𣍐䆀。

伊人𫧃䆀。

physical, psychological or moral quality or condition


米

Short for 米突 (mǐtū), from English metre.

米三

我有一米九高。

2020, “微光 [Glimmer]”, 唐小奕 (lyrics), 曹楊 [Young] (music)performed by 曹楊 [Young]:

[I] am just a tiny light; [I] cannot brighten up an area within a metre.

zhǐshì wēixiǎo de guāng, zhào bù liàng yī mǐ de dìfang

只是微小的光 照不亮一米的地方


零

CJKV/code

Sino-Xenic (零):
* → Japanese: 零(れい) (rei)
* → Korean: 령(零) (ryeong)
* → Vietnamese: linh (零)

→ Bouyei: lingz

→ Lü: ᦟᦲᧃᧉ (liin²)

→ Zhuang: lingz

/liaŋ²²⁻²²⁵/

/liaŋ²²⁻²²⁵/

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *riːŋ, *reːŋ, *reːŋs): semantic 雨 (“rain”) + phonetic 令 (OC *ren, *reŋ, *reŋs, *reːŋ, *reːŋs). On the oracle bone script, only thick raindrops are depicted falling from the sky.
Unclear. Schuessler (2007) proposes several possibilities:
* From Austroasiatic; compare Khmer ភ្លៀង (phliəng, “rain”), from Proto-Mon-Khmer *(p)liɲ ~ *(p)liəɲ ~ (p)liiɲ (“sky, rain”).
* Possibly related to Jingpho marang (“rain”), for which STEDT sets up Proto-Sino-Tibetan *m/s-raŋ (“rain”). Starostin also relates it to this Jingpho word and sets up Proto-Sino-Tibetan *rēŋ (“to drop”), also comparing Tibetan སྤྲིན (sprin, “cloud”) and Burmese ရည် (rany, “liquid; juice”).
* Possibly related to 隕 (OC *ɢunʔ, “to drop”) and 霣 (OC *ɢunʔ, “to rain; to fall down like rain”) if one assumes Proto-Sino-Tibetan *r/s/g-wa (“water; rain”) (or its variant *rwe-) can be simplified to *re- and *we-.
Sense "zero" is introduced in 1248 by Chinese mathematician Li Ye.

inh

〇
𠏡
𡈍
𤅫
𥥋
𮖿
𩂙
霗
𩃞
𩅶
𩆖
𩆼
⿳⻗人𰆊

零星

廿零蚊

分零兩分鐘

分零两分钟

七十零

(Cantonese, Hakka, Northern Min, Eastern Min) Used after a number or a classifier to express a small remaining quantity.


零

〇
𠏡
𡈍
𤅫
𥥋
𮖿
𩂙
霗
𩃞
𩅶
𩆖
𩆼
⿳⻗人𰆊


城

CJKV/code

Sino-Xenic (城):
* → Japanese: 城(じょう) (jō)
* → Korean: 성(城) (seong)
* → Vietnamese: thành (城)

→ Lao: ຊຽງ (sīang)

→ Lü: ᦵᦋᧂ (tseng)

→ Northern Thai: ᨩ᩠ᨿᨦ

→ Thai: เชียง (chiiang)

→ Zhuang: singz

/siaŋ²²⁻²²⁵/

/siaŋ²²⁻²²⁵/

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *djeŋ): semantic 土 (“soil”) + phonetic 成 (OC *djeŋ) since the bricks of the city walls were originally made of stamped earth.
Cognate with 成 (OC *djeŋ, “to complete; city walls”), 盛 (OC *djeŋ, “to hold with a receptacle”), 盛 (OC *djeŋs, “abundant; flourishing”), as 城 (OC *djeŋ, “city wall”) was made of filled-in or stamped earth (Schuessler, 2007). See 成 for more.
Its original meaning was "city walls" and was originally written as 成; later, it started to indicate the city (i.e., the part of territory within the city walls) due to metonymy since a single part of a city indicates the city itself.

och-l

the enemy army is just outside of the walls of the city

兵臨城下

兵临城下

There is a city, with an inner wall of three li in circumference, and an outer wall of seven. The enemy surround and attack it, but they are not able to take it.

Sān lǐ zhī chéng, qī lǐ zhī guō, huán ér gōng zhī ér bù shèng.

三里之城，七里之郭，環而攻之而不勝。

三里之城，七里之郭，环而攻之而不胜。


層

CJKV/code

Sino-Xenic (層):
* → Japanese: 層(そう) (sō)
* → Korean: 층(層) (cheung)

→ Vietnamese: tầng

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *zɯːŋ): semantic 尸 + phonetic 曾 (OC *ʔsɯːŋ, *zɯːŋ).
The Baxter and Sagart (2014) reconstruction suggests this word is derived from 增 (OC *s-tˤəŋ, “to increase, to expand, to add”), in turn derived from 登 (OC *tˤəŋ, “to go up, to climb”).


百

CJKV/code

Sino-Xenic (百):
* → Japanese: 百(ひゃく) (hyaku)
* → Korean: 백(百) (baek)
* → Vietnamese: bách (百)

→ Ai-Cham: pek⁷

→ Lao: ປາກ (pāk)

→ Lü: ᦔᦱᧅ (ṗaak)

→ Shan: ပၢၵ်ႇ (pàak)

→ Southern Kam: begs

→ Zhuang: bak

→ Proto-Hmong-Mien: *pæk

Iu Mien: baeqv

Western Xiangxi Miao: bat

White Hmong: pua

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *praːɡ): semantic 一 + phonetic 白 (OC *braːɡ).
From Proto-Sino-Tibetan *pV-rja(k).
皕 (bì, “two hundred”) is derived from 百 (bǎi), perhaps by abbreviation of an ancient pronunciation of 二百 Sagart (2023c).


十

CJKV/code

Sino-Xenic (十):
* → Japanese: 十(じゅう) (jū)
* → Korean: 십(十) (sip)
* → Vietnamese: thập (十)

→ Ahom: 𑜏𑜢𑜆𑜫 (sip)

→ Bouyei: xib

→ Khmer: ដប់ (dɑp), សិប (səp)

→ Lao: ສິບ (sip)

→ Lü: ᦉᦲᧇ (ṡiib)

desc

→ Saek: ซิ̄บ

→ Saek: ซิ̄บ

→ Shan: သိပ်း (síp)

→ Tai Dam: ꪎꪲꪚ

→ Tai Nüa: ᥔᥤᥙᥴ (síp)

→ Thai: สิบ (sìp)

→ Zhuang: cib

Unlike 一, which was one horizontal stroke meaning one, 十 was originally simply a vertical stroke. In later forms 一 was added, forming a cross.
Possibly a pictogram (象形) for a needle, later written as 針 (OC *kjum, *kjums), borrowed phonetically for 十 (OC *ɡjub, “ten”).
Unrelated to 支, 卖, 直, 真, 德, 甫， and 七 but related to the original version of 丈 and perhaps related to 由.
The notion that 針 /针 (zhēn) belongs to the same series as 十 (shí) is not generally accepted. If they are separated, Baxter-Sagart's reconstruction can be amended to *[g][i]p.
From Proto-Sino-Tibetan *sV-ɢip.

十分

十全十美


億

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *qɯɡ): semantic 人 + phonetic 意 (OC *qɯɡs).

Han compound

(obsolete on its own in Standard Chinese) peaceful; stable

(obsolete on its own in Standard Chinese) brimming; plentiful; abundant

(obsolete on its own in Standard Chinese) alternative form of 臆 (yì, “chest”)

(obsolete on its own in Standard Chinese) alternative form of 臆 (yì, “to guess; to estimate; to surmise”)


二

CJKV/code

Sino-Xenic (二):
* → Japanese: 二(に) (ni)
* → Korean: 이(二) (i)
* → Vietnamese: nhị (二)

→ Bouyei: ngih

→ Northern Thai: ᨿᩦ᩵

→ Lao: ຍີ່ (nyī)

→ Thai: ยี่ (yîi)

→ Vietnamese: nhì

→ Zhuang: ngeih

Ideogram (指事) - two parallel strokes. Compare with 一, one stroke meaning one, 三, three strokes meaning three, and 亖 (sì), four strokes meaning four. Duplication of 一 (“one”).
From Proto-Sino-Tibetan *kV-ni-s. Cognate to Tibetan གཉིས (gnyis), Sikkimese ཉི (nyi), Tangut 𗍫 (*njɨ̱¹), Burmese နှစ် (hnac), and Nuosu ꑍ (nyip). See also: 次 (OC *sn̥ʰis, “second; next”), a cognate within Chinese languages.

你這人怎麼這麼二！

你这人怎么这么二！

(dialectal Mandarin) stupid, dumb; silly, thick, lacking mental agility (often in a cute way)


三

Sino-Xenic (三):
* → Japanese: 三(さん) (san)
* → Korean: 삼(三) (sam)
* → Vietnamese: tam (三)

→ Proto-Tai: *saːmᴬ (“three”)

Lao: ສາມ (sām)

Thai: สาม (sǎam)

Zhuang: sam

Characters in the same phonetic series (三) (Zhengzhang, 2003)
Ideogram (指事) - three parallel strokes. Compare with 一, one stroke meaning “one”, 二, two strokes meaning “two”, and 亖, four strokes meaning “four”.
Triplication of 一 (“one”). See also 畺. Unrelated to 丰.
From Proto-Sino-Tibetan *kV-sum.
Pronunciation in Early Middle Chinese should be *srim, but actually is *sam, with a non-retroflex initial consonant. This irregular development should be due by analogy with the initial of number four in EMC, *sijH.

Han etyl

叄/叁/參/参
𠫰/𠬅/𠬄
弎
𢦘

(Mainland China, slang, neologism) the other woman; the other man


四

Numbers in Chinese culture#Four
Qin dynasty
Spring and Autumn period
Western Zhou

CJKV/code

Sino-Xenic (四):
* → Japanese: 四(し) (shi)
* → Korean: 사(四) (sa)
* → Vietnamese: tứ (四)

Wutunhua: se

desctree

→ Proto-Tai: *siːᴮ (“four”)
Northern Tai
Bouyei: sis
Tai Do: xì
Zhuang: seiq
Central Tai
Nong Zhuang: siq
Nùng: slỉ
Tày: slí
Proto-Southwestern Tai: *siːᴮ
Thai: สี่ (sìi)
Northern Thai: ᩈᩦ᩵
Lao: ສີ່ (sī)
Phake: ꩬီ (sī)
Lü: ᦉᦲᧈ (ṡii¹)
Tai Dam: ꪎꪲ꪿
Shan: သီႇ (sìi)
Tai Laing: ꩬီ
Tai Nüa: ᥔᥤᥱ (sǐ)
Khamti: ꩬီ
Ahom: 𑜏𑜣 (sī)
Aiton: ꩬီ (sī)

→ Vietnamese: tư (“four”)

The word "four" was written as 亖 (sì) before Western Zhou and 四 (sì) appeared in late Spring and Autumn period. This alternative form was used to prevent confusion of 亖 (sì) and 二 (“two”) or 三 (“three”) in vertical writing. It was standardized in Qin dynasty.
The bronzeware style of the character featured a repositioning of those four lines inside 口 (kǒu); this later evolved into the combination used today of 口 (kǒu, “mouth”) and 八 (bā, “divide”) which meant a dispersal of breath. It could thus be said that four is a borrowed meaning for this character. The original sense is preserved in 呬 (OC *hrids), by adding an extra 口. Compare this character with 只 and 曰.
From Proto-Sino-Tibetan *pV-lij.

肆
亖
皿
龱
𠁤
𠃢
𦉭

(printing) English; The size of type between 小四 (little 4) and 小三 (little 3), standardized as 14 point.


五

(music) Cantonese opera gongche notation for the note la (6).


六

(music) Cantonese opera gongche notation for the note sol (5).


最近

/t͡su̯eɪ̯⁵¹⁻⁵³ t͡ɕin⁵¹/

/t͡sɵy̯³³ kɐn²²/

/tui³³ kin³²⁻³²⁵/

/t͡søy⁵³⁻²¹ køyŋ²⁴²/

/t͡sue⁴¹⁻⁵⁵⁴ kun²²/

/t͡sue⁴¹⁻⁵⁵⁴ kun³³/

/t͡sue²¹³⁻⁵⁵ kɯŋ³⁵/

/t͡sø⁵⁵ d͡ʑin²¹/

/t͡sø⁴⁴ d͡ʑin²³/

/t͡sø³³ d͡ʑin⁴⁴/

/t͡su̯eɪ̯⁵¹⁻⁵³ t͡ɕin⁵¹/

/t͡sɵy̯³³ kɐn²²/

/tui³³ kin³²⁻³²⁵/

/t͡søy⁵³⁻²¹ køyŋ²⁴²/

/t͡sue⁴¹⁻⁵⁵⁴ kun²²/

/t͡sue⁴¹⁻⁵⁵⁴ kun³³/

/t͡sue²¹³⁻⁵⁵ kɯŋ³⁵/

/t͡sø⁵⁵ d͡ʑin²¹/

/t͡sø⁴⁴ d͡ʑin²³/

/t͡sø³³ d͡ʑin⁴⁴/

/t͡sɵy̯³³ kʰɐn¹³/

/t͡su̯eɪ̯⁵¹⁻⁵³ t͡ɕin⁵¹/

/t͡sɵy̯³³ kʰɐn¹³/

/t͡sɵy̯³³ kɐn²²/

/t͡sue⁴¹⁻⁵⁵⁴ kun²²/

/t͡sue²¹³⁻⁵⁵ kɯŋ³⁵/

這是最近一期的《讀者》。

这是最近一期的《读者》。


最

/t͡su̯eɪ̯⁵¹/

/t͡su̯eɪ̯⁵¹/

Originally 㝡, phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *zloːds): semantic 宀 (“roof”) + phonetic 取 (OC *sʰloːʔ, *sʰloʔ) – "to gather". Later 二 was added as distinguishing marks to disambiguate the character for the meaning "the most". The top components have corrupted into 冃 in the traditional form. These components were further corrupted into 曰 in the simplified version.

Han compound

最佳


近

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *ɡɯnʔ, *ɡɯns): semantic 辶 (“walk”) + phonetic 斤 (OC *kɯn, *kɯns) – to be near something.
Karlgren (1933) relates 近 (OC *ɡɯnʔ, *ɡɯns) to 幾 (OC *kɯl, “imminent”).
近 (OC *ɡɯns, “to come near to; to approach”) is the exoactive/causative derivation of 近 (OC *ɡɯnʔ, “to be near”) (Schuessler, 2007).
Compare Proto-Vietic *t-kəɲ, whence Vietnamese gần (“near”).

och-l

別跟他走得太近。

别跟他走得太近。


萬

CJKV/code

Sino-Xenic (萬):
* → Japanese: 万(まん) (man, “ten thousand”); 万(ばん) (ban, “a great amount”)
* → Korean: 만(萬) (man, “ten thousand”)
* → Vietnamese: vạn (萬, “ten thousand”)

desc

→ Bouyei: faanh (“ten thousand”), Wanq (surname)

→ Proto-Hmong: *wi̯aŋꟲ (“ten thousand”)

→ Kavalan: ban (“ten thousand”)

→ Khmer: ម៉ឺន (məɨn), ហ្មឺន (məɨn, “ten thousand; official rank”)

→ Lao: ໝື່ນ (mư̄n), ຫມື່ນ (mư̄n, “ten thousand; official rank”)

→ Middle Korean: 즈믄 (cumun, “thousand”)

→ Middle Mongol: ᠲᠦᠮᠡᠨ (tümen, “ten thousand”)

→ English: tumen (“an army unit of 10,000 soldiers, among the ancient Mongols”)

Khalkha Mongolian: ᠲᠦᠮᠡ (tüme) / түм (tüm)

→ Persian: تومان (tumân)

→ English: toman (“former currency of Iran”)

→ Russian: Тюмень (Tjumenʹ, “Tyumen”)

→ English: Tyumen (“city in Russia”)

→ Shan: မိုၼ်ႇ (mùen, “ten thousand”)

→ Thai: หมื่น (mʉ̀ʉn, “ten thousand; official rank”)

→ Proto-Tocharian:

Tocharian A: tmāṃ (“ten thousand”)

Tocharian B: t₍ᵤ₎māne (“ten thousand, a myriad”)

→ Proto-Tungusic:

Manchu: ᡨᡠᠮᡝᠨ (tumen, “ten thousand”)

zh-l

→ Chinese: 圖們／图们 (Túmén, “Tumen, city in China”), 圖們江／图们江 (Túmén Jiāng, “Tumen River, boundary river between China, North Korea and Russia”)

→ English: Tumen (“city in China”)

→ Korean: 도문 (圖們, Domun, “Tumen”)

desc

→ Middle Korean: 투먼〮가ᇰ (Thwùmén-kàng, “Tumen River”)

→ Korean: 두만강 (豆滿江, Duman'gang, “Tumen River”)

→ Proto-Turkic: *tümen (“ten thousand; an infinitely large number”)

Turkish: tümen (“ten thousand”)

→ Vietnamese: muôn (𨷈, “ten thousand; all, many”), man (“ten thousand”)

→ Zhuang: fanh (“ten thousand”)

Pictogram (象形) – scorpion. This character's original meaning has been lost, and the derivative 蠆 (OC *m̥ʰraːds) refers to the original word.
; “scorpion”
; “religious dance; sorcery”
; “myriad; ten thousand”

万
㸘
𤍚
𢁭
𥝄
𥝅
𬺳
𠃡

(obsolete) Original form of 蠆／虿 (chài, “scorpion”).

(historical) A ritual dance in ancient China.

兩萬元

两万元

一百萬

一百万

four hundred million compatriots (the population of China from 1910s to 1940s)

四萬萬同胞

四万万同胞

萬歲

万岁

萬眾一心

万众一心

排除萬難

排除万难

(figurative) a great number; myriad; numerous

Comrade Wan Li, whose original name was Wan Mingli, was born to a poor family in Dongping County, Shandong Province in December 1916.

“万里同志生平”, in People's Daily (in Chinese), 2015 July 23, page 4

Wàn Lǐ tóngzhì, yuánmíng Wàn Mínglǐ, 1916 nián 12 yuè chūshēng yú Shāndōng xǐng Dōngpíng xiàn yī ge pínmín jiātíng.

萬里同志，原名萬明禮，1916年12月出生於山東省東平縣一個貧民家庭。

万里同志，原名万明礼，1916年12月出生于山东省东平县一个贫民家庭。


心

CJKV/code

Sino-Xenic (心):
* → Japanese: 心(しん) (shin)
* → Korean: 심(心) (sim)
* → Vietnamese: tâm (心)

→ Vietnamese: tim (“heart”)

→ Zhuang: sim

Pictogram (象形) – a heart, now highly stylized.
From Proto-Sino-Tibetan *səm.

Twenty-Eight Mansions
w:Twenty-Eight Mansions

(～宿) (Chinese astronomy) Heart (one of the Twenty-Eight Mansions)


中文

Sino-Xenic (中文):
* → Japanese: 中文(ちゅうぶん) (chūbun)
* → Korean: 중문(中文) (jungmun)
* → Vietnamese: Trung văn (中文)

/ʈ͡ʂʊŋ⁵⁵ wən³⁵/

/ʈ͡ʂuŋ²⁴ vəŋ²⁴/

/t͡sʊŋ⁵⁵ mɐn²¹⁻³⁵/

/t͡sʊŋ⁵⁵ mɐn²¹/

/t͡ʃuŋ⁵³ vun⁵⁵/

/t͡sʊŋ⁴⁴⁻³⁵ ʋun¹¹/

/tœŋ⁵³³⁻¹¹ mɔŋ¹³/

dyoeng¹ muong² [Phonetic:dyoeng⁵ muong²]

/tyøŋ⁵⁴⁴⁻²¹ muoŋ²⁴/

/tiɔŋ⁴⁴⁻²² bun²⁴/

/tiɔŋ⁴⁴⁻²² bun¹³/

/tiɔŋ⁴⁴⁻³³ bun²⁴/

/tiɔŋ⁴⁴⁻³³ bun²³/

/toŋ³³⁻²³ buŋ⁵⁵/

/t͡soŋ⁵⁵ vən²¹/

/ʈ͡ʂʊŋ⁵⁵ wən³⁵/

/ʈ͡ʂuŋ²⁴ vəŋ²⁴/

/t͡sʊŋ⁵⁵ mɐn²¹⁻³⁵/

/t͡sʊŋ⁵⁵ mɐn²¹/

/t͡ʃuŋ⁵³ vun⁵⁵/

/t͡sʊŋ⁴⁴⁻³⁵ ʋun¹¹/

/tœŋ⁵³³⁻¹¹ mɔŋ¹³/

/tyøŋ⁵⁴⁴⁻²¹ muoŋ²⁴/

/tiɔŋ⁴⁴⁻²² bun²⁴/

/tiɔŋ⁴⁴⁻²² bun¹³/

/tiɔŋ⁴⁴⁻³³ bun²⁴/

/tiɔŋ⁴⁴⁻³³ bun²³/

/toŋ³³⁻²³ buŋ⁵⁵/

/t͡soŋ⁵⁵ vən²¹/

(Mainland China, Taiwan, proscribed) Mandarin


白

Sino-Xenic (白):
* → Japanese: 白(はく) (haku)
* → Korean: 백(白) (baek)
* → Jeju: 벡 (bek)
* → Vietnamese: bạch (白)

→ Proto-Southwestern Tai: *pʰɯəkᴰ¹ᴸ

Lao: ເຜືອກ (phư̄ak)

Thai: เผือก (pʉ̀ʉak)

→ Proto-Vietic: *baːk

Vietnamese: bạc

desc

→ Vietnamese: bệch (“chalky; sickly white”)

Characters in the same phonetic series (白) (Zhengzhang, 2003)
Unclear; probably a pictogram (象形).
Guo (1954) suggests that it represents a thumb and is original form of 拇 (*mɯʔ) or, more probably, 擘 (*preːɡ).
Alternatively, Unger (apud Schuessler, 2007) suggests that it represents an acorn, noting its use in 樂 /乐 (“oak”) (= 櫟 /栎) and 皂 (zào, “acorn”). In this interpretation, the meaning of “white” is derived from the color of an acorn's inside. Unrelated to the top component of 原.
STEDT derives it from Proto-Sino-Tibetan *bawk (“white”), whence also Proto-Bodo-Garo *bok (“white”), Limbu ᤑ (phô, “white”); also compare Proto-Mon-Khmer *kɓɔɔk (“white, grey”).
However, Schuessler (2007) finds it difficult to reconcile these forms with Middle Chinese due to the lack of medial r. Instead, he proposes a derivation from Proto-Sino-Tibetan *bar (“white”) with -k extension, thus cognate with 皤 (OC *baːl, “white”) (Wang, 1982), Mizo vâr (“(to be) white”), Proto-Karen *ʔ(b)wa (“white”).

Han etyl

白話

白话

蘇白

苏白

京白


年

CJKV/code

Sino-Xenic (年):
* → Japanese: 年(ねん) (nen)
* → Korean: 년(年) (nyeon)
* → Vietnamese: niên (年)

Wutunhua: nian

→ Zhuang: nienz

In the oracle bone script and early bronze inscriptions, it was originally 秂, an ideogrammic compound (會意 /会意) and phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *niːŋ): semantic 禾 (“wheat; grain”) + phonetic 人 (OC *njin, “person”) – a person carrying wheat on his back – harvest. In bronze inscriptions after the Western Zhou period, a stroke was often added to 人 to give 千 (OC *sn̥ʰiːn), which still acted as a phonetic component, thus getting (秊). The current form is inherited from the clerical script, where libian (隸變) has occurred.
See also 以, in which a person is carrying something, 央, in which a person is carrying a pole, and 重, in which a person is carrying a bag.
From Proto-Sino-Tibetan *s-ni(ŋ~k) (“year”).

Han compound

秂
秊
䄹
𰨝
𠡦
𠦅
𠦚
䄭
𦼌
𠬋
𠫺

豐年

丰年

過年

过年

年糕

年貨

年货

兩年前

两年前


東

CJKV/code

Sino-Xenic (東):
* → Japanese: 東(とう) (tō)
* → Korean: 동(東) (dong)
* → Vietnamese: đông (東)

Japanese: 東(トン) (ton, “east wind (mahjong tile)”)

Jiajie (假借) and ideogram (指事): 束 (OC *hljoɡ) or 橐 (OC *tʰaːɡ) borrowed for sound 東 (OC *toːŋ), with a horizontal stroke added as a distinguishing mark to differentiate the character from 束.
Alternatively, it is also thought to be a pictogram (象形) of either a bundle of faggots tied together or a bag tied at both ends (like a cellophane-wrapped candy with the ends twisted).
Interpreted in the Shuowen Jiezi as an ideogrammic compound (會意 /会意) the sun (日) rising behind a tree (木). According to Allan (1991) p. 47-50, the character represents the Fu Sang tree. However, the original form is rather different, hence any interpretation tied to a tree is most likely a folk etymology.
See the top component of 曹 in the original version. See also 柬, 熏, 西 and 鹵/卤.
Cognate with Burmese ထွန်း (htwan:, “be bright”), Chepang थोङ्सा (thoŋ‑, “lighten; be bright”) and Chepang थोङ्ह (thoŋh, “awake time (as opposed to dream time)”) (Schuessler, 2007). Perhaps related to or influenced by 暾 (OC *tʰuːn, “rising sun”).

cog

房東

房东

股東

股东


北

CJKV/code

Sino-Xenic (北):
* → Japanese: 北(ほく) (hoku)
* → Korean: 북(北) (buk)
* → Vietnamese: bắc (北)

→ Japanese: 北(ペー) (pē, “north wind (mahjong tile)”)

Characters in the same phonetic series (北) (Zhengzhang, 2003)
Ideogrammic compound (會意 /会意) – two men back to back. Originally meaning “back”; the character 背 (OC *pɯːɡs, *bɯːɡs) refers to the original word.
Compare 化, 比, 卬, and 尼.
From Proto-Sino-Tibetan *bə(q) (“to carry (on back), shoulder”).
The sense of “north” is derived from “back (of body)”: “back” → “to turn the back to; to retreat” → “north”.
The ancient Chinese value the southern direction and houses are traditionally oriented along a north–south axis, as evident in the fengshui theory and in the orientation of buildings in Chinese Neolithic sites. North is the direction the back is oriented to when the person is facing south.
Compare the graphical origin of 南 (OC *nuːm, “south”) (Sagart, 1988).

inh-lite

敗北／败北


北

(obsolete on its own in Standard Chinese) Original form of 背 (bèi, “back; to betray”).


酒

CJKV/code

Sino-Xenic (酒):
* → Japanese: 酒(しゅ) (shu)
* → Korean: 주(酒) (ju)
* → Vietnamese: tửu (酒)

→ Indonesian: ciu

/t͡ɕi̯oʊ̯²¹⁴/

/t͡si̯əu̯⁴¹/

/t͡ɕi̯əu̯⁴¹/

/t͡ɕi̯oʊ̯²¹⁴/

/t͡si̯əu̯⁴¹/

/t͡ɕi̯əu̯⁴¹/

Ideogrammic compound (會意 /会意): 水 (“water”) + 酉 (“an alcoholic drink vessel”) - the liquid associated with an alcoholic drink vessel, hence wine and alcohol. See also 酋.
Also a phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *ʔsluʔ): semantic 水 (“water, liquid”) + phonetic 酉 (OC *luʔ).
From Proto-Sino-Tibetan *jəw (“liquor”) (STEDT). Cognate with 酉 (OC *luʔ, “wine; wine vessel”).

Han compound

GT - General Taiwanese (no specific region identified)


中

Pictogram (象形) – a flagpole. Based on archaeological evidence, the middle box has been interpreted as a drum (建鼓). This flagpole with a drum was placed in the center of a field to gather people and to detect the direction of the wind. In addition, the pronunciation of 中 (OC *tuŋ, *tuŋs) is reminiscent of the beating of a drum.
Shuowen interprets the character as a vertical stroke 丨 passing through the center of 口, indicating the center.
It has also been interpreted as an arrow in the center of a target.
“Middle; centre” (Pronunciation 1) > “to hit the centre; to attain” (Pronunciation 2).
From Proto-Sino-Tibetan *t/duŋ. Cognate with Tibetan གཞུང (gzhung, “middle, center”).
Related to:
* 衷 (OC *tuŋ, *tuŋs, “middle; inner garment; inner feelings”);
* 仲 (OC *duŋs, “second (of the brothers or months)”).


雨

CJKV/code

Sino-Xenic (雨):
* → Japanese: 雨(う) (u)
* → Korean: 우(雨) (u)
* → Vietnamese: vũ (雨)

Pictogram (象形) – a cloud with drops of rain falling from it. The horizontal stroke at the top was added later. (Compare Egyptian 𓇲.)
From Proto-Sino-Tibetan *k/r/s-wa.

(obsolete on its own in Standard Chinese, figurative) teaching; instruction

雲

basic weather words shared by most dialects


下

Characters in the same phonetic series (下) (Zhengzhang, 2003)
In oracle bone script, it is an ideogram (指事) that shows the concept of "down" by showing one line below another (contrast 上). This form evolved into 下 in later scripts, the character used today.
From Proto-Sino-Tibetan *(k/g)la-k/j/t (“to fall”) (STEDT):
* inside Sinitic, cognate with 落 (OC *ɡ·raːɡ, “to fall, to drop”), 露 (OC *ɡ·raːɡs, “dew”), 陊 (OC *l'aːlʔ, *l'alʔ, “to collapse”) and 阤 (OC *l'alʔ, *hljalʔ, “hillside, slope”);
* outside Sinitic, cognate with Mizo tla ~ tlâk (“to fall”), thla ~ thlâk (“to drop”), Burmese ကျ (kya., “to fall”) and ချ (hkya., “to drop”).
Schuessler (2007) instead proposed an Austroasiatic origin by comparing 下 (OC *ɡraːʔ, “to descend, down, below”) to Khmer [script needed] (gra'ka, “be low, debased”); additionally, he suggested that Sino-Tibetan influence had possibly caused the weakening of foreign final *-k to OC final *-ʔ. He derives the departing tone (去聲) pronunciation via two derivations:
* 下 (OC *ɡraːs, “to be put down”) is an exopassive derivation (ibid.);
* 下 (OC *ɡraːs, “to descend, to fall”) is a later, general departing tone derivative (ibid.).

cog

你快下來。

你快下来。

下海

下樓

下楼

下山

走下

落下

跳下深淵

跳下深渊

to go down; to descend (as complement) downwards; down

拿下

打下基礎

打下基础


不

CJKV/code

Sino-Xenic (不):
* → Japanese: 不(ふ) (fu)
* → Korean: 불(不) (bul), 부(不) (bu)
* → Vietnamese: bất (不)

Emperor Zhao of Han
Shang Dynasty
Shuowen
naming taboo

Characters in the same phonetic series (不) (Zhengzhang, 2003)
Pictogram (象形): the calyx of a flower. 不 was then composed into a phono-semantic character with the pictograph for mouth (口), to form 否 (OC *brɯʔ, *pɯʔ), representing “no” (negation). This composed meaning then spread back to the original character 不, making it a synonym of 否. A new character of 柎 (OC *po) was eventually created to represent the original meaning of calyx.
Following Shuowen’s interpretation, Karlgren and Wieger interpret it as a bird flying toward the sky (一). The sky being the limit for the bird, thus the idea of negation.
Old Chinese had two sets of negatives: the initial *p-series and the initial *m-series. 不 is the prototype of the *p-series of negatives. Although it is the usual Literary Chinese negative attested from the oracle bone script down, its current usage is now confined to Mandarin dialects. In the oracle bone inscriptions, a total of five negative particles can be found: 不, 弗, 毋, 勿 and 非. With the exception of 非 (discussed later), the remaining can be neatly organised into the following system:
Takahashi (1996) argued that the *m-type negatives are modal (i.e. negative verbs which are thought of as controllable by the Shang), whereas the *p-type negatives are non-modal (imply uncontrollability; actions which are beyond the control of living persons).
In the *p-series, 不 usually goes with intransitive verbs in the oracle bone script, and 弗 (OC *pɯd) with transitive ones, although there are some glaring exceptions. Little or no pattern can be discerned in the *m-type category. Takahashi (1996) also proposed that the difference between the two vowel series was whether they preceded “stative, eventive, passive” (*-V series) or “non-stative, non-eventive, active” (*-ɯd series) verbs.
It is possible that the two parallel series of negatives in Old Chinese represent a fusion of the common Sino–Tibetan *ma (“no, not”) (carried by the eastward-migrating early Sino–Tibetans) and an indigenous negation system in Central China, and that the merger had been complete by the Shang times. Compare a similar system in Proto-Tai: *ɓawᴮ (“not [strong form 1]”), *boːᴮ (“not [strong form 2]”), *miːᴬ (“not [weak form]”); Thai บ่ (bɔ̀ɔ, “(literary, archaic, dialectal) not”).
The development from Old Chinese to Middle Chinese was not regular. The character 不 replaced 弗 (OC *pɯd, MC *piut), to respect the naming taboo for Emperor Zhao of Han, although the pronunciation has remained in nearly all topolects (e.g. Beijing Mandarin bù, Guangzhou Cantonese bat¹, Meixian Hakka bud⁵, Shanghainese Wu peq). The Modern Standard Mandarin pronunciation is also from this checked coda word, but this word escaped from regular sound changes during its evolution to the modern pronunciation bù. The expected reading is fu (tone undetermined), with labiodentalisation. The rising-tone pronunciation had a Middle Chinese homophone 否 (“not”), which is now primarily used in compounds, and demonstrates the regular development into modern f-. Another example of a high-frequency word escaping this sound change is 父 (OC *paʔ, *baʔ, “dad”), which resulted in the late coinage of the character 爸 (bà).
不 is cognate with other negation particles in the *p-type category:
* 弗 (OC *pɯd, “not”);
* 非 (OC *pɯj, “not be; not”) – can be safely regarded as a fusion of 不 (OC *pɯ, *pɯʔ, *pɯ', “not”) and 惟 (OC *ɢʷi, “to be”);
* 否 (OC *brɯʔ, *pɯʔ, “not; to be wrong”);
* 匪 (OC *pɯjʔ, “it is not; to be not”); and
* 棐 (OC *pɯjʔ, “it is not; to be not”).
Cognate with Thai บ่ (bɔ̀ɔ, “(literary, archaic, dialectal) not”) (Schuessler, 2007).

cog

這個不好。

这个不好。

他不愛你。

他不爱你。

你愛吃紅蘿蔔不？

你爱吃红萝卜不？

(regional) Used to form polar questions, placed at the end of a question.


丟

desc

→ Old Turkic: az- (to be aroused) (calque)

Ideogrammic compound (會意 /会意): 一 (“one (once)”) + 去 (“to go; to remove”).


久

/t͡ɕi̯oʊ̯²¹⁴/

/t͡ɕi̯əu̯⁴¹/

/t͡ɕi̯oʊ̯²¹⁴/

/t͡ɕi̯əu̯⁴¹/

Used interchangeably with 氒 in oracle bone script. Likely a pictogram (象形) of an arrow tip.
Possibly Sino-Tibetan. Compare Bantawa [script needed] (kʰokpa, “old man”) (Sagart, 2017d), which STEDT derives from Proto-Sino-Tibetan *kwak (“old”).
舊 (OC *N-kʷəʔ-s) may be a derivative (Baxter and Sagart, 2014). See there for more.

cog

GT - General Taiwanese (no particular region identified)


也

Pictogram (象形) — A child (子) with their mouth (口) open crying. The original form of 嗁 (OC *l'eː, “to cry”) (Chi Hsu-Sheng, 2014). The child's arms were removed during bronze inscriptions and the two components fused together in the modern form.
Other various possible explanations include:
* The traditional glyph origin given in Shuowen explains the character to be a pictogram (象形) of female genitalia.
* It was once interchangeable with 它 and may have originated as a simplification. Hence, it could be the pictogram of a snake.
* It may have been created to represent the modal particle (語氣詞／语气词 (yǔqìcí)). In some bronze inscriptions, it appears to be a mouth (口) with a curved line descending from it to represent air coming out of the mouth.
* It is possibly a pictogram (象形) of an ancient funnel or wash basin. It may be an early form of 匜.
* It may have signified a big-headed scorpion with its legs flattened, signifying as something very "flat" or "stretched out".
; classical sentence-ending copulative particle, topic particle
Unclear. Possibly Sino-Tibetan, connectable to Tibetan ལ (la), which is often used as a marker (for oblique locative, dative, possessor in constructions with a copula verb, etc.) but also a topicalizer like ནི (ni, “as for”) (Schuessler, 2007).
On the other hand, Pulleyblank (1995) notes the similarity with anteclassical 唯 (OC *ɢʷi) as a copula and a topicalizer.
; also, too, as well

zh-l

語氣詞／语气词 (yǔqìcí)

𠃟
𦫴
𦬀
𠔄
𠃒
啊
叶
亦

我亦人也。

In the west there are great mountains, which are the tallest in the world.

Qí xī yǒu dà shān, tiānxià zhì gāo zhě yě.

其西有大山，天下至高者也。

Is he a noble person? He is a noble person.

The Analects of Confucius, c. 475 – 221 BCE

君子人與？君子人也。

君子人与？君子人也。

Teng is a small kingdom, between Qi and Chu. Should we serve Qi? Or Should we serve Chu?

Téng xiǎoguó yě, jiān yú Qí Chǔ. Shì Qí hū? Shì Chǔ hū?

滕小國也，間於齊楚。事齊乎？事楚乎？

滕小国也，间于齐楚。事齐乎？事楚乎？

From this we may see that if somebody lacks a commiserating heart, they are not a human being.

Yóushì guān zhī, wú cèyǐn zhī xīn, fēi rén yě.

由是觀之，無惻隱之心，非人也。

由是观之，无恻隐之心，非人也。

Though the myriad things are many, their government is one.

萬物雖多，其治一也。

万物虽多，其治一也。

(Classical) Particle used at the end of copular constructions involving a nominal predicate; to be (although not grammatically a verb)

Life and death are [matters of] destiny. That there is the constancy of night and dawn is [a matter of] Heaven.

Sǐ shēng, mìng yě, qí yǒu yè dàn zhī cháng, tiān yě.

死生，命也，其有夜旦之常，天也。

That Jie and Zhou lost the empire was because they lost their people; that they lost their people was because they lost their hearts.

Jié Zhòu zhī shī tiānxià yě, shī qí mín yě; shī qí mín zhě, shī qí xīn yě.

桀紂之失天下也，失其民也；失其民者，失其心也。

桀纣之失天下也，失其民也；失其民者，失其心也。

Often used more loosely than the English copula to indicate a cause or relation.

回也，不愚。

As for a man's life, is it hazy like this all along? Or is it mine alone which is hazy, and there are others who are not?

Rén zhī shēng yě, gù ruò shì máng hū! Qí wǒ dú máng, ér rén yì yǒu bù máng zhě hū!

人之生也，固若是芒乎！其我獨芒，而人亦有不芒者乎！

人之生也，固若是芒乎！其我独芒，而人亦有不芒者乎！

Generally concerning the difficulty of carrying out the law, not only the imperial realm but kingdoms are also [faced with] this.

Fán fǎshù zhī nán xíng yě, bù dú wànchéng, qiānchéng yì rán.

凡法術之難行也，不獨萬乘，千乘亦然。

凡法术之难行也，不独万乘，千乘亦然。

(Classical) Topic-marking particle used at the end of noun phrases.

When a man is capped [at the age of twenty], his father instructs him; when a girl is married, her mother instructs her.

Zhàngfū zhī guàn yě, fù mìng zhī; nǚzǐ zhī jià yě, mǔ mìng zhī.

丈夫之冠也，父命之；女子之嫁也，母命之。

When the Three Dynasties gained the empire, it was through benevolence; when they lost the empire, it was through lack of benevolence.

Sāndài zhī dé tiānxià yě yǐ rén, qí shī tiānxià yě yǐ bù rén.

三代之得天下也以仁，其失天下也以不仁。

Duke Zhao of Lu was once bereaved of his mother when he was a child, and had a foster mother who was kind. When she died, the Duke could not bear it.

The Book of Rites, c. 4ᵗʰ – 2ⁿᵈ century BCE

Xīzhě, Lǔ Zhāogōng shào sàng qí mǔ, yǒu címǔ liáng. Jí qí sǐ yě, gōng fú rěn yě.

昔者，魯昭公少喪其母，有慈母良。及其死也，公弗忍也。

昔者，鲁昭公少丧其母，有慈母良。及其死也，公弗忍也。

when, at the time of; especially commonly used for temporal topics, often as 及其……也.

Meng Wu Bo asked. "Is Zilu benevolent?" The Master said, "I do not know."

Mèng Wǔ Bó wèn: “Zǐlù rén hū?” Zǐ yuē: “Bù zhī yě.”

孟武伯問：「子路仁乎？」子曰：「不知也。」

孟武伯问：「子路仁乎？」子曰：「不知也。」

In that age, they did not find value in sturdy chariots and good horses; they did not find pleasure in carvings and adornments.

Dāngshì zhī shí, jiānchē liángmǎ bù zhī guì yě, kèlòu wéncǎi bù zhī xǐ yě.

當是之時，堅車良馬不知貴也，刻鏤文采不知喜也。

当是之时，坚车良马不知贵也，刻镂文采不知喜也。

Everybody knows the use in being useful, but nobody knows the use in being useless.

Rén jiē zhī yǒuyòng zhī yòng, ér mò zhī wúyòng zhī yòng yě.

人皆知有用之用，而莫知無用之用也。

人皆知有用之用，而莫知无用之用也。

continuous aspect
continuous aspect#English

(Classical) Verb phrase-final particle marking continuous aspect, especially common for assertions of unchanging fact.


亂

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *roːns): phonetic 𤔔 (*[r]ˁo[n]-s) + semantic 乚. The left-side component 𤔔 is itself ideogrammatic, depicting the effort to comb a tangle of threads, hence the semantic link to order and disorder.
Area word of Austroasiatic origin. Compare Khmer ប្រួល (pruəl, “changing; unstable”) < Khmer រួល (ruəl, “to cook; to grill”), and also Khmer កំរោល (kɑmraol, “to go berserk; to become excited”) < Khmer រោល (rool, “to burn; to roast”) (Schuessler, 2007). Burmese ရုန်း (run:, “to struggle, to warp, to cause chaos”) and Tibetan ཁྲལ་ཁྲུལ (khral khrul, “fragments; scattered”) are Austroasiatic loans. Compare also Vietnamese lộn (“to turn the inside out, upside down, to reverse, to return, etc.”) and trộn (“to mix; to blend; to turn upside down”).

cog

乱
乨
乿
𠃶
𠃹
𠃿
𢿢
𢿮
𤕅
𤔪


事

CJKV/code

Sino-Xenic (事):
* → Japanese: 事(じ) (ji)
* → Korean: 사(事) (sa)
* → Vietnamese: sự (事)

Ideogrammic compound (會意 /会意): 又 (“hand”) + 中 (“flag or hunting weapon”) – flag in hand > to perform one's job. Compare 吏. Furthermore, both character are related to 史, which is a variant without the horizontal stroke on top.
Exopassive of 士 (OC *zrɯʔ, “to give or carry out an assignment; to serve”), literally “what has been assigned” (Schuessler, 2007).
Alternatively, based on Gong (2000), STEDT derives it from Proto-Sino-Tibetan *r-dzas (“thing”), whence Burmese စာ (ca, “thing”) and Tibetan རྫས (rdzas, “thing, object, matter”).

cog

亊
叓
㕝
𠁱
𠫺
𠭏
𤔇
𪜃
𠭆

A relative of Mao Dun would like to find work in the Catholic school that I teach at.

1935 April, 魏金枝, 《再說“賣文”》, in 《文飯小品》, issue 3

Máo Dùn de yīge qīnqī, xiǎng dào wǒ zài jiāoshū de jiàohuì xuéxiào lǐ lái zhǎo shì zuò le.

茅盾的一個親戚，想到我在教書的教會學校裡來找事做了。

茅盾的一个亲戚，想到我在教书的教会学校里来找事做了。


些

吃些肉

一些都沒有／一些都没有

some; a few; a little; a bit (an indefinite amount)

走快些

(used after adjectives and certain verbs) a bit; a bit more


些

The southern twigs are just beginning to have a few flowers;
In the snow, I enjoy their scent and appreciate their colors.

Nán zhī cái fàng liǎng-sān huā, xuě lǐ yín xiāng nòng fěn suò.

南枝纔放兩三花，雪裏吟香弄粉些。

南枝才放两三花，雪里吟香弄粉些。

(obsolete on its own in Standard Chinese) A modal particle.


交

/t͡ɕi̯ɑʊ̯⁵⁵/

/t͡ɕi̯ɑʊ̯⁵⁵/

Pictogram (象形) – a human with crossed legs. In today's writing, the upper part of the human is similar to 立, which in turn depicts a man standing. Unrelated to 父.
From Proto-Sino-Tibetan *rjaw (“mix”); cognate with Burmese ရော (rau:, “to mix”), Jingpho yau (“be mixed”), kəjau (“to mix, intermix”), compare Chepang [script needed] (ljawh-ʔo, “mixed”) and Proto-Mienic *klaau³ (Schuessler, 2007).

alt. forms: 郊 (jiāo)

(Hokkien, dated) Used to refer to a private wholesale trading company


亮

Ideogrammic compound (會意 /会意) and phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *raŋs): semantic 人 (“person”) + phonetic 京 (OC *kraŋ, “building; tower”). In the variant 𠅙, the body of the tower is more recognizable.
Part of an Austroasiatic word family; compare Khmer [script needed] (-rāṃṅa, “to be light; to be bright”) (Schuessler, 2007), from Proto-Mon-Khmer *raaŋʔ (“light; to shine”); as well as:
:* ស្រាំង (srang, “to be pale; to be colourless”) with 爽 (OC *sraŋʔ),
:* [script needed] (brāṅa, “to grow light (after dark)”) with 炳 (OC *praŋʔ).
:* បំព្រាង (bɑmpriəng, “to shed a pale light”) with 明 (OC *mraŋ).
Alternatively, STEDT compares it to Proto-Kuki-Chin *klaaŋ-I, *klaan-II (“to shine; light; bright”).

cog

(dialectal Mandarin, dialectal Wu, Xiang) lamp; light


他

Wutunhua: ta (“he; she; it”)

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *l̥ʰaːl): semantic 亻 (“man”) + phonetic 也 (OC *laːlʔ).
Corrupted form of 佗 (OC *l̥ʰaːl, *l'aːl), which is found in Zuozhuan.
Etymology not clear (Schuessler, 2007). Perhaps cognate with 誃 (OC *l'al, *l̥ʰjalʔ, “to separate”).
The modern sense of "he, she, it" only emerged after the Han period in colloquial passages, and displaced classical 其 (OC *ɡɯ) and 之 (OC *tjɯ) in mandarin dialects. (Pulleyblank, 1995)
The phonological development from Middle Chinese was irregular. The expected reflex is tuō, which is sometimes used in literary contexts for the classical "other" sense, but in most Mandarin dialects it is read like tā.

Han compound

while 渠 is more common in other varieties

Chinese varieties in general do not distinguish gender

distinctions are only sometimes made in writing.佢 is commonly used in Yue

他去了。

我認識他。

我认识他。

Shì wèi jiāngjūn hé kě xiū, liù yuè zhòng yīn pī bào qiú, bù shí hán shǔ duàn tā tóu. Xióng ér tián lán wèi bàochóu, zhōng yè zhǎnshǒu xiè bìngzhōu.

士為將軍何可羞，六月重茵披豹裘，不識寒暑斷他頭。雄兒田蘭為報仇，中夜斬首謝并州。

士为将军何可羞，六月重茵披豹裘，不识寒暑断他头。雄儿田兰为报仇，中夜斩首谢并州。

All things were made by him; and without him was not any thing made that was made.

新標點和合本 (Chinese Union Version with New Punctuation), 約翰福音 (John) 1:3

Wànwù shì jièzhe tā zào de; fán bèi zào de, méiyǒu yī yàng bùshì jièzhe tā zào de.

萬物是藉著他造的；凡被造的，沒有一樣不是藉著他造的。

万物是借着他造的；凡被造的，没有一样不是借着他造的。

Since he was afraid neither of wolves and lizards nor of tigers and leopards, [he] went straight to the mountaintop to look around.

Wu Cheng'en, Journey to the West, 16ᵗʰ century CE, translation from The Journey to the West (2012), by Anthony C. Yu

Tā yě bù pà lángchóng, bù jù hǔbào, dēng shàng shāndǐng shàng guānkàn.

他也不怕狼蟲，不懼虎豹，登上山頂上觀看。

他也不怕狼虫，不惧虎豹，登上山顶上观看。

My current girl-pupil – named Daiyu, whenever she reads, she pronounces every character mǐn (敏 "hasty") as mì (密 "honey"); whenever [she] writes, [she] lessens every character 敏's number of strokes by one or two.

Cao Xueqin, Dream of the Red Chamber, mid-18ᵗʰ century CE

Wǒ zhè nǚxuéshēng míng jiào Dàiyù. Tā dú shū, fán ‘mǐn’ zì, tā jiē niàn zuò ‘mì’ zì; xiě zì, yù zhù ‘mǐn’ zì yì jiǎn yī'èr bǐ.

我這女學生名叫黛玉。他讀書，凡『敏』字，他皆念作『密』字；寫字，遇著『敏』字亦減一二筆。

我这女学生名叫黛玉。他读书，凡『敏』字，他皆念作『密』字；写字，遇著『敏』字亦减一二笔。

(chiefly Mandarin, Jin, Xiang, dialectal Wu, originally gender-neutral; nowadays usually referring to males) he; him; she; her

睡他個昏天黑地

睡他个昏天黑地

A dummy pronoun. Compare object pronoun 之 (zhī)


位

Ideogrammic compound (會意 /会意) and phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *ɢʷrɯbs): semantic 亻 (“man”) + phonetic 立 (OC *rɯb, “stand”). Often simply written as 立 in idiomatic expressions such as 即位 (jíwèi) in Western Zhou inscriptions.
From Proto-Sino-Tibetan *kV-r(j)əp (“to stand”). Derived from 立 (OC *rɯb). Mei (2012) lists it among the possible nasal-prefixed verb forms (Old Chinese *N-k- > Middle Chinese *ɦ-, possibly forming a stative). Suffixed with a nominalizing *-s, it takes the sense "the place/rank/status one holds".

inh

三位數／三位数

進位／进位

(information theory) bit (the smallest unit of storage in a digital computer)


低

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *tiːl): semantic 亻 (“man, person”) + phonetic 氐 (OC *tiːl, *til) – a person lowering themselves, bowing.
Cognate with 底 (OC *tiːlʔ, “bottom”), 柢 (OC *tiːl, *tiːlʔ, *tiːls, “root of a tree; base”), Tibetan མཐིལ (mthil, “bottom; floor”) (Schuessler, 2007).

och-l

(dialectal Mandarin, Jin) short (in stature)


住

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *tos, *dos): semantic 亻 + phonetic 主 (OC *tjoʔ).
Derived from Proto-Sino-Tibetan *m-duŋ/k ~ m-tuŋ/k (“to sit”) by STEDT, but this is dubious as the vowels do not match.

inh

你住喺邊度？

你住喺边度？

我住喺香港。

It's clear that the Khitans were totally bought off with the money and goods.

c. 13th century, various editors, A Collection of Conversations of Master Zhu (《朱子語類》)

契丹分明是被金帛買住了。

契丹分明是被金帛买住了。

Verb suffix indicating firmness, steadiness or coming to a halt.

戴住眼鏡

戴住眼镜

唔好去住先。

(Cantonese) Verb suffix indicating ongoing action's status.


作

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *ʔsaːɡs, *ʔsaːɡs, *ʔsaːɡ): semantic 亻 (“man”) + phonetic 乍 (OC *zraːɡs).
Derivative: 做 (“to do”) (the departing-tone variant).

Han compound

(obsolete on its own in Standard Chinese) to emit; to give out

(obsolete on its own in Standard Chinese) to start; to launch


你

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *nɯʔ): semantic 亻 (“person”) + phonetic 尔 (OC *njelʔ). Alternatively, Ideogrammic compound (會意 /会意): 人 (“person”) + 尔 (“you”)
Colloquial form of 爾 (OC *njelʔ, “you”) attested since the Tang dynasty. Ultimately from Proto-Sino-Tibetan *na-ŋ (“you”).

Han compound

妳
伱
儞
伲
𤙌
汝
㚢

你好

你今天晚上有空嗎？

你今天晚上有空吗？

我喜歡你。

我喜欢你。

you (the person spoken to or written to)

閻王叫你三更死，誰敢留人到五更 / 阎王叫你三更死，谁敢留人到五更

Yánwáng jiào nǐ sāngēng sǐ, shéi gǎn liú rén dào wǔgēng


來

CJKV/code

Sino-Xenic (來):
* → Japanese: 来(らい) (rai)
* → Korean: 래(來) (rae)
* → Vietnamese: lai (來)

Shuowen
Warring States period
Western Zhou

Pictogram (象形) of wheat – original character of 麥 (OC *mrɯːɡ, “wheat”) or 麳 (OC *rɯː, “wheat”). The line in the middle represents the ear, the two lines pointing upwards represent leaves, and the lines pointing downwards represent the stem and roots. An additional horizontal line was often added at the top end of the character, possibly used to emphasize the ear of the wheat. Compare 禾; both are unrelated to 釆.
This character has been borrowed for “to come” since the oracle bone script. During the Western Zhou and Warring States periods, additional semantic components, such as 止 (“foot”) or 辵 (“to walk”), were added to differentiate the original sense from the borrowed sense. However, these additions were not inherited in later scripts.
Some consider the derivative 麥 from the addition of 夊 (“to walk slowly”) to be the original form for the meaning “to come”. If so, their meanings have interchanged due to frequent use of 來 for “to come”.
Shuowen connects “wheat” and “to come” from a mythological standpoint: 天所來也 (“it comes from the heavens”). This may be supported by archaeological evidence, which suggests that wheat is not native to China, but originated in the Fertile Crescent.
來 and 麥 have both been reconstructed to begin with *mr- in Old Chinese. The former retains the liquid as /l/, while the latter retains the nasal /m/.
From Proto-Sino-Tibetan *la-j ~ ra (“to come”) (STEDT). Cognate with 迨 (OC *l'ɯːʔ, “to reach; until”), 賚 (OC *rɯːs, “to bestow”), Burmese လာ (la, “to come”). Also cognate with 蒞 (OC *rɯbs, “to arrive”) according to Schuessler (2007).

inh

来
𧼛
倈
逨
徠
来
麳
䅘

來，腳讓一讓

来，脚让一让

1886, Lim Hiong Seng, “Household Furniture &c.”, in Handbook of the Swatow Vernacular, Singapore: Koh Yew Hean Press:

The water is finished, I will go and get (some.)

水完了。我來去携

水完了。我来去携

我做不來俯臥撐。

我做不来俯卧撑。

(～母) (Chinese linguistics) the Middle Chinese initial of 來 (MC loj)


信

Sino-Xenic (信):
* → Vietnamese: tín (信)

→ Vietnamese: tin

Ideogrammic compound (會意 /会意) and
phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *hljins): phonetic 人 (OC *njin, “person”) + semantic 言 (“word”).
Schuessler (2007) reconstructs the Old Chinese minimally as *sin and suggests possible derivation from 允 (OC *winʔ, “to trust; to be true”).
Alternatively, Sagart and Baxter (2012) reconstruct *s-niŋ-s (*s-ni[ŋ]-s in Baxter and Sagart, 2014) and suggest a derivation from 仁 (OC *niŋ, “kind”) with the prefix *s-, probably used to increase its valency.

Han compound

信口雌黃／信口雌黄

to make irresponsible remarks (lit. to correct someone with at will)

(mineralogy) short for 信石 (xìnshí, “arsenolite”)


信

An inchworm contracts, so that it may extend.

尺蠖之屈，以求信也。

(literary) obsolete form of 伸 (shēn): to extend


個

CJKV/code

Sino-Xenic (個):
* → Japanese: 個(こ) (ko)
* → Korean: 개(個) (gae)
* → Vietnamese: cá (個)

Wutunhua: -ge

→? Baba Malay: punya (semantic loan)

desc

→? Vietnamese: cái (possibly some contamination)

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *kaːls): semantic 亻 (“person”) + phonetic 固 (OC *kaːs).
The semantics may have developed along the grammaticalisation process "bamboo stalk" (箇) > "piece, item" > "classifier for every category of noun" > "possessive particle, generic particle". If so, it would then possibly be cognate with 竿 (OC *kaːn, “bamboo, rod”). Compare Tibetan མཁར་བ (mkhar ba), འཁར་བ ('khar ba, “walking stick, staff”) and Thai ก้าน (gâan, “stem, stalk”).
; Southern Min classifier and possessive particle
; Wu classifier and possessive particle

Han compound

个
箇
个
兮
的
ㄟ
ケ
亓
亇

may use corresponding classifier in certain contexts

→ 嘅 (ge3) (Cantonese); 格 (kaq), 額／额 (gheq) (Shanghainese) (Mandarin influenced); 噶, 葛 (Suzhounese); 的 (ê) (Hokkien)

我個冊

我个册

我個書

我个书

我個小囡

我个小囡

客家個精神

客家个精神

(dialectal Cantonese, Hakka, Southern Min, Wu) Possessive particle. Equivalent to Mandarin 的 (de).

標語勿是我寫個。

标语勿是我写个。

事體老妖個。

事体老妖个。

(dialectal) Sentence-final declarative, affirmative, or prohibitive particle. Equivalent to Mandarin 的 (de), 了 (le).

係噉個喎

系噉个㖞

(Cantonese, pronunciation spelling) Vowel harmony form of 嘅 (ge3, “emphasis particle used at the end of declarative sentences”), pronounced as 個／个 (go3) when followed by sentence final particles with vowel o, such as 喎／㖞 (wo3).


倍

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *bɯːʔ): semantic 人 + phonetic 咅 (OC *pʰɯʔ, *pʰl'oːs).


們

Jin dynasty (1115–1234)
Ming dynasty
Song dynasty
Tang dynasty
Yuan dynasty

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声): semantic 亻 (“person”) + phonetic 門 (OC *mɯːn).
First attested in the Song dynasty (Lü, 1940). Various other glyphs representing *mVn have been attested in Song dynasty texts, including 懣, 滿, 瞞, 門.
It is probably related to 弭 (MC mjieX) (in 我弭) and 偉 (MC hjw+jX) (in 兒郎偉 /儿郎伟 (érláng wěi)) attested in the Tang dynasty (Lü, 1940); it is related to 每 (měi), as in 我每 (wǒměi), common during the Jin (Jurchen), Yuan and early Ming dynasties (Lü, 1985).
Proposed etymologies:
* From the personal pronoun plural marker 輩 (OC *puːls) (Lü, 1985; Feng, 1997; Li, 2013).
* From 門 (MC mwon, “door; clan; family”) (Ota, 2003; Yu, 1989; Li and Shi, 2000).
* From 每人 (MC mwojX nyin, “everybody”) (Norman, 1988); compare Eastern Min 各儂／各侬 (“everybody”), used in 我各儂／我各侬 (“we; us”), 汝各儂／汝各侬 (“you (plural)”), 伊各儂／伊各侬 (“they”).
* From 物 (MC mjut, “thing”) (Jiang, 1995).
* From plural features in Dravidian languages, cf. Classical Tamil -m, -mar, -mār suffixes, Tamil நாம் (nām, “inclusive we”), via Indic languages by means of Buddhist transmission (Chen & Ye, 2020).
Also compare 您.

zh-l

我各儂／我各侬 (“we; us”)

伊各儂／伊各侬 (“they”)

花兒們

花儿们

(dialectal Mandarin, Jin) General suffix indicating plural.


倒

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *taːwʔ, *taːws): semantic 亻 + phonetic 到 (OC *taːws).

Han compound

particle used in a subordinate clause at the beginning of a sentence to indicate concession; quite


做

Originally a vulgar variant of 作, written ⿰作攵. The component 乍 later corrupted into 古.
Colloquial form of the departing-tone variant of 作 (MC tsaH, “to do”), to differentiate from the checked-tone variant (now represented by 作). Loss of checked codas in Mandarin has resulted in homophony of the two.


停

→ Vietnamese: đừng (“do not”)

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *deːŋ): semantic 亻 + phonetic 亭 (OC *deːŋ).
From 亭 (tíng) (Schuessler, 2007). See there for more.

Han compound

(literary, or in compounds) reliable; safe; secure; proper


像

/t͡ɕʰiaŋ²¹³/

/t͡sʰi̯oŋ⁵⁵/

/t͡sʰuɔŋ²⁴²/

/t͡sʰi̯æn²¹/

/t͡ɕʰi̯æn²¹/

/t͡ɕʰiaŋ²¹³/

/t͡sʰi̯oŋ⁵⁵/

/t͡sʰuɔŋ²⁴²/

/t͡sʰi̯æn²¹/

/t͡ɕʰi̯æn²¹/

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *ljaŋʔ): semantic 亻 (“person”) + phonetic 象 (OC *ljaŋʔ).
Traditionally thought to be the same word as Old Chinese 象 (*ljaŋʔ, “elephant”) (Han Feizihttps://ctext.org/hanfeizi/jie-lao#n2005, Karlgren, 1957).
Schuessler (2007) posits that Old Chinese *z- and *s-l- / *s-j- might have merged in Zuo Zhuan and thinks Old Chinese 像 (*ljaŋʔ, “image”) possibly derives from Sino-Tibetan root *la, making it cognate with Tibetan ལད་མོ (lad mo, “imitation, to imitate, mimic”) & ལྷ (lha, “gods, image of a deity”) (however, see ལྷ (lha) for other etymology), Lepcha ᰗᰰ (klan, “similar”) & ᰗᰰᰜᰶ (klan-lă, “imitation”), Jingpho [script needed] (sum³¹-la³³, “picture, image”) & [script needed] (num³¹-la³³, “ghost”). Geilich (1994) adds Tibetan ལྡེམ (ldem, “statue, idol”) yet connects the Tibeto-Burman items to Old Chinese 似 (*ljɯʔ).
Doublet of 佯 (yáng, “to feign”) and 樣 /样 (yàng, “appearance”).


先

Ideogrammic compound (會意 /会意): 止 (“foot”) + 儿 (“person”) – to go forward.
Sino-Tibetan. Cognate with Tibetan བསེལ (bsel, “to protect (on a dangerous path); to escort”), Chepang स्यालःसा (syalʔ‑, “to lead; to go or do first; to open way”) (Schuessler, 2007).

cog

我要先去洗手間。

我要先去洗手间。

他比我先畢業。

他比我先毕业。

我要去廁所先。

我要去厕所先。

唔好去住先。

first; ahead of time; before; beforehand

先聲

先声

領先

领先

先兩日

先两日

He slept so long that he only woke up just now.

keoi⁵ fan³ dou³ ji⁴ gaa¹ sin¹ fan³ seng² gaau³.

佢瞓到而家先瞓醒覺。

佢𰥛到而家先𰥛醒觉。

2020, “南昌街王子 [The Prince Near You]”, 黃偉文 [Wyman Wong] (lyrics)performed by 薛凱琪 [Fiona Sit]:

這先叫成長嗎

这先叫成长吗


內

CJKV/code

Sino-Xenic (內):
* → Japanese: 内(ない) (nai)
* → Korean: 내(內) (nae)
* → Vietnamese: nội (內)

Ideogrammic compound (會意 /会意): 冂 (“city outskirts”) + 入 (“to enter”) – entering the city through its outskirts - inside, within.
Related to 入 (OC *njub, “to enter”); see there for more.

Han compound

traditional Chinese medicine
traditional Chinese medicine

(traditional Chinese medicine) internal organs


再

CJKV/code

Sino-Xenic (再):
* → Japanese: 再(さい) (sai)
* → Korean: 재(再) (jae)
* → Vietnamese: tái (再)

Cognate with 載 (OC *ʔslɯːʔ, “year”), 茲 (OC *ʔsɯ, “year”), 薦 (OC *ʔseːns, “repeatedly”), 洊 (OC *zlɯːns, “again; repeatedly”), 荐 (OC *zlɯːns, “repeatedly”) (Schuessler, 2007).

再玩

一拖再拖

我再說一遍

我再说一遍

後來我再也沒見過他了。

后来我再也没见过他了。

Gone are the swallows, still there's a time they'll come again. Wilted are the willows, still there's a time they'll be green again. Withered are the peach blossoms, still there's a time they'll bloom again.

Yànzǐ qù le, yǒu zài lái de shíhòu; yángliǔ kū le, yǒu zài qīng de shíhòu; táohuā xiè le, yǒu zài kāi de shíhòu.

燕子去了，有再來的時候；楊柳枯了，有再青的時候；桃花謝了，有再開的時候。

燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候。

If we don't leave now, we're going to miss the train.

Zài bù chūfā, wǒmen jiù huì gǎnbùshàng huǒchē le.

再不出發，我們就會趕不上火車了。

再不出发，我们就会赶不上火车了。

Used to indicate a continuing situation in conditional or suppositional clauses

No matter how hard you work, you will not succeed.

你再努力也不會成功。

你再努力也不会成功。

Yǒule zhè jiàn miányī, zài lěng de tiān wǒ yě bù pà le.

有了這件棉衣，再冷的天我也不怕了。

有了这件棉衣，再冷的天我也不怕了。

Used with 也 (yě) and followed by a negative expression; no matter how...still (not)

我們吃過飯再回去吧。

我们吃过饭再回去吧。

到時再算／到时再算 [Cantonese] ― dou³ si⁴ zoi³ syun³ [Jyutping]


冷

(Cantonese, Liuzhou Mandarin, Pinghua, Leizhou Min, Hainanese) woollen yarn (Classifier: 條／条 c; 嚿 c)


分

→ Malay: hun

→ Indonesian: hun

desc

→ Thai: หุน (hǔn, “a unit of length and weight”)

→ Zhuang: faen

Ideogrammic compound (會意 /会意): 八 (“to separate”) + 刀 (“knife”) – to separate with a knife.

Han compound

Obsolete. 皮 is used for SI prefix pico-.

See also: 分手

to break up; to end a relationship; to separate


到

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *taːws): semantic 至 (“to arrive”) + phonetic 刀 (OC *taːw).

Han compound

遘
告
至
甲
屆
各
格
𢓜
佫
徦
假
臵

我到機場接你。

我到机场接你。

他到中國去了。

他到中国去了。


刻

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *kʰɯːɡ): phonetic 亥 (OC *ɡɯːʔ) + semantic 刂.

Han compound

此刻


剛

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *klaːŋ): phonetic 岡 (OC *klaːŋ) + semantic 刀 (“knife”).

Along with 鋼 (OC *klaːŋ, *klaːŋs, “steel”), derived from the terminative of 固 (OC *kaːs, “firm, solid, hard”), literally "having become solid, hard" (Schuessler, 2007). The word can be reconstructed all the way back to Proto-Sino-Tibetan *rkaŋ.


剛

剛才

刚才

剛剛

刚刚

他剛回來。

他刚回来。

The moment he finished his work, the bell rang.

tā gāng zuòwán gōngzuò, líng jiù xiǎng le

他剛做完工作，鈴就響了

他刚做完工作，铃就响了


剩

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *ɦljɯŋs): phonetic 乘 (OC *ɦljɯŋ, *ɦljɯŋs) + semantic 刀.


加

Shuowen: ideogrammic compound (會意 /会意): 力 (“strength”) + 口 (“mouth”) — exaggerate; slander.
Sun Changxu: ideogrammic compound (會意 /会意): 力 (“plowing”) + 口 (“mouth”) — to put more effort. 口 here indicates exclamations or breath associated with the effort.
駕 (OC *kraːls, “to yoke”) is the exopassive of 加 (OC *kraːl, “to add; to attach”) (Schuessler, 2007). Cognate with Tibetan ཁྲལ (khral, “to impose a tax”), Burmese ကြား (kra:, “between”).

placed after a monosyllabic adverb to indicate an increase in the degree; more

里加

加爾各答

加尔各答

亞美利加

亚美利加


動

CJKV/code

Sino-Xenic (動):
* → Japanese: 動(どう) (dō)
* → Korean: 동(動) (dong)
* → Vietnamese: động (動)

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *doːŋʔ): phonetic 重 (OC *doŋ, *doŋʔ, *doŋs) + semantic 力 (“strength”). However, the phonetic component is a reference to a heavy bag ready to be moved by a human being.

Han compound

动
㣫
働
勭
𡺍
𨔝
𭜀
𢳾

(grammar) short for 動詞／动词 (dòngcí, “verb”)


勭

勭 (Kangxi radical 19, 力+12, 14 strokes, cangjie input 卜土大尸 (YGKS), composition ⿰童力)


半

Ideogrammic compound (會意 /会意): 八 (“to divide”) + 牛 (“cow”) – to cut a cow into two halves.
From Proto-Sino-Tibetan *par. Related to 畔 (OC *baːns, “bank between fields”), which is an endopassive of 半 (OC *paːns, “half”), lit. "be separated from".

半醉半醒


又

Pictogram (象形) – a right hand. Original form of 右 (OC *ɢʷɯʔ, *ɢʷɯs, “right”). Unrelated to 𠬤 (> 译).
Often written as 彐 in many modern characters such as 事, 聿, 雪, 急, 爭, 尹, and 建 (which is unrelated to 聿).
Adverbial derivation of 有 (OC *ɢʷɯʔ, “to have; there is”) (Schuessler, 2007).

聰明又漂亮

聪明又漂亮

我又餓又渴。

我又饿又渴。

I want to go, but I also don't want to go, what should I do?

Wǒ yòu xiǎng qù, yòu bù xiǎng qù, gāi zěnme bàn?

我又想去，又不想去，該怎麼辦？

我又想去，又不想去，该怎么办？

Used to express the coexistence of several conditions or qualities; both ... and ...

Leonardo da Vinci was a scientist also an artist.

Dá Fēnqí shì kēxuéjiā, yòu shì yìshùjiā.

達·芬奇是科學家，又是藝術家。

达·芬奇是科学家，又是艺术家。

And God created great whales, and every living creature that moveth, which the waters brought forth abundantly, after their kind, and every winged fowl after his kind: and God saw that it was good.

新標點和合本 (Chinese Union Version with New Punctuation), 創世記 (Genesis) 1:21

Shén jiù zào chū dà yú hé shuǐ zhōng suǒ zīshēng gèyàng yǒu shēngmìng de dòngwù, gè cóng qí lèi. Yòu zào chū gèyàng fēiniǎo, gè cóng qí lèi. Shén kàn zhuó shì hǎo de.

神就造出大魚和水中所滋生各樣有生命的動物，各從其類。又造出各樣飛鳥，各從其類。神看著是好的。

神就造出大鱼和水中所滋生各样有生命的动物，各从其类。又造出各样飞鸟，各从其类。神看着是好的。

四小時又十分鐘

四小时又十分钟

二又三分之一

Used between a whole number and a fraction

What good for you is there in doing that?

Zhèyàng zuò duì nǐ yòu yǒu shénme hǎochù?

這樣做對你又有什麼好處？

这样做对你又有什么好处？

Why should I care about that! It's not like I did it.

go² di¹ je⁵ jau⁶ m⁴ hai⁶ ngo⁵ zou⁶, gwaan¹ ngo⁵ me¹ si⁶ ze¹.

嗰啲嘢又唔係我做，關我咩事啫。

嗰啲嘢又唔系我做，关我咩事啫。

我又唔係冇錢。

我又唔系冇钱。

你又知？

Used in negative statements and rhetorical questions for emphasis


句

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *koː, *koːs, *kos, *ɡo): semantic 丩 (“to entangle”) + phonetic 口 (OC *kʰoːʔ), which may represent the tip of a big nail.
The 丩 component, originally two entangled ropes, now resembles the unrelated 勹.

Han compound

He didn't say much. [lit. He didn't say many sentences.]

他一共也沒說幾句話。

他一共也没说几句话。

一句「多謝」都冇

一句「多谢」都冇

(Cantonese; formal in Hong Kong) Classifier for hours.


句

(obsolete on its own in Standard Chinese) alternative form of 絇 /𰬆 (jù, “a kind of shoe ornament or decoration”)


叫

desc

→ Turkmen: gyw (“sound made to call others in feminine speech”)

/t͡ɕi̯ɑʊ̯⁵¹/

/t͡ɕi̯ɒu̯⁴⁵/

/t͡ɕi̯ɑʊ̯⁵¹/

/t͡ɕi̯ɒu̯⁴⁵/

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *kiːws): semantic 口 (“mouth”) + phonetic 丩 (OC *kɯw, *krɯw). According to Shuowen Jiezi, its original meaning was "to shout".

Han compound

呌
哯
嘂
嘄
噭
䚯
訆
𠮧
𠮪
𠶼
𠸵
䶷

慢慢叫

迓迓叫

輕輕叫

轻轻叫

好好叫上課

好好叫上课

(Northern Wu) Suffix used to form adverbs from reduplicated monosyllabic adjectives or verbs.


右

Burmese language
Jingpho language
Proto-Sino-Tibetan language
Tibetan language

Originally 又 (OC *ɢʷɯs, “right hand”) in the oracle bone script.
In bronze inscriptions, a 口 (“mouth; speech”) component was added, perhaps with the intention of indicating the use of 又 (OC *ɢʷɯs, “again”) as a phonetic loan. In other words, the current form is a phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *ɢʷɯʔ, *ɢʷɯs) and ideogrammic compound (會意 /会意): phonetic 又 (OC *ɢʷɯs, “right hand”) + semantic 口 (“mouth; speech”).
From Proto-Sino-Tibetan *g-(j/r)a (“right (hand)”) (STEDT). Cognate with Tibetan གཡས (g.yas, “right”), Jingpho hkra (khʒa⁵⁵, “right”), Burmese ယာ (ya), ညာ (nya).
友 (OC *ɢʷɯʔ, “be friendly; friend”) is the endoactive derivation of 右 (OC *ɢʷɯʔ) (Schuessler, 2007).
佑 (OC *ɢʷɯs, “to aid”), 祐 (OC *ɢʷɯs, “(of divinity) to assist; to bless”), 宥 (OC *ɢʷɯs, “to pardon; magnanimous”) are exoactive derivations of 右 (OC *ɢʷɯʔ) (ibid.).
; “(politics) right-wing”

liushu

OC *ɢʷɯʔ, *ɢʷɯs

och-l

右 (OC *ɢʷɯʔ)

右 (OC *ɢʷɯʔ)

右舷

右美沙芬


右

CJKV/code

Sino-Xenic (右):
* → Japanese: 右(う) (u); 右(ゆう) (yū)
* → Korean: 우(右) (u)
* → Vietnamese: hữu (右)

→ Bouyei: gvaz (“right”)

→ Lao: ຂວາ (khuā, “right”)

→ Lü: ᦧᦱ (ẋwaa, “right”)

→ Northern Thai: ᨡ᩠ᩅᩣ (“right”)

→ Shan: ၶႂႃ (khwǎa, “right”)

→ Thai: ขวา (kwǎa, “right”)

→ Zhuang: gvaz (“right”)

liushu

OC *ɢʷɯʔ, *ɢʷɯs

och-l

右 (OC *ɢʷɯʔ)

右 (OC *ɢʷɯʔ)

(obsolete on its own in Standard Chinese) Original form of 祐 (yòu, “to protect; to bless”).


吃

Wutunhua: qe

→ Japanese: 吃(チー) (chī)

/t͡ɕʰi̯a̠²⁴/

/t͡ɕʰi̯a̠²⁴/

Phono-semantic compound 形聲 /形声 (xíngshēng): semantic 口 (kǒu) + phonetic 乞 (OC *kʰɯds, *kʰɯd).
Its original meaning is "to stutter", hence, the phonetic component could add part of the meaning since it has the phonetically borrowed meaning of "begging" (i.e., trying to talk but with difficulties).
According to folk etymologies, 乞 in this character indicates that, while stuttering, less air comes from the mouth (compare 气, which has more traits). However, 乞 is simply a variant of 气, it originally meant "air" and was later borrowed to indicate "begging", therefore it didn't mean "less air; to stutter" or similar words and expressions.

吃得苦中苦，方為人上人 / 吃得苦中苦，方为人上人

chī de kǔ zhōng kǔ, fāng wéi rén shàng rén

2023, “我的世界地圖”, 黃偉文 [Wyman Wong] (lyrics), 王菀之 [Ivana Wong] (music)performed by 魏浚笙 [Jeffrey Ngai]:

If the younger generation simply accepts the default methods of those who came before, there will be no more future ahead

nin⁴ hing¹ jat¹ bui³, jyu⁴ gwo² zi² hek³ cin⁴ jan⁴ jyu⁶ cit³ naa⁵ jat¹ tou³, zoi³ mut⁶ cin⁴ lou⁶

年輕一輩 如果只吃前人預設那一套 再沒前路

年轻一辈 如果只吃前人预设那一套 再没前路


各

Ideogrammic compound (會意 /会意): 夂 (“sole of foot”) + 口 – to come, to enter; original form of 𢓜 and 格 (OC *klaːɡ, *kraːɡ). The mouth could be referred to the entrance of a cavern or building (see 高, 去 and 谷; however, this is not the case in 向). Compare 出.
Sino-Tibetan. Derived from 舉 (OC kaʔ) with distributive suffix -k. Cognate with Proto-Lolo-Burmese *ka (“all”) (Schuessler, 2007)

Han compound

(dialectal, derogatory) sticking out; odd; unusual


向

CJKV/code

Sino-Xenic (向):
* → Vietnamese: hướng (向)

Ideogrammic compound (會意 /会意): 宀 (“house”) + 口 (“mouth”), echos in a place. The original form of 響. It was borrowed to represent 𠨍 (嚮) later. The mouth doesn't represent an opening (e.g., a door or a window) as in 高 and 谷. Similar to 冋.
; “ACG: for (directed at, intended to belong to)”

Han compound

(Hokkien) to lean; to slant; to tilt; to list; to slope; to incline


吧

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声 (xíngshēng)): semantic 口 (kǒu) + phonetic 巴 (OC *praː).
From 罷／罢 (bà) and 夫 (OC *ba, “is it not?”), itself a contraction of 不乎.

好吧！

算了吧。

Used at the end of a sentence used to concede a point.

不是吧！

Used at the end of a sentence used to indicate disapproving incredulousness.


吧

迪吧


吶

吶喊

呐喊


吶

吶吶

呐呐

(literary) alternative form of 訥 /讷 (“to stammer”)


吶

(Hokkien) to lick; to touch or pick up things with one's tongue


吹

/ʈ͡ʂʰu̯eɪ̯⁵⁵/

/t͡sʰuɐi⁵³³/

/ʈ͡ʂʰu̯eɪ̯⁵⁵/

/t͡sʰuɐi⁵³³/

Ideogrammic compound (會意 /会意): 口 (“mouth”) + 欠 (“blow”) according to oracle bones and bronzes. An archaic variant of this character is 龡.

斬草不除根，春風吹又生 / 斩草不除根，春风吹又生

zhǎn cǎo bù chúgēn, chūnfēng chuī yòu shēng

(colloquial, of a plan) to fall through; (of relationship) to break down


呀

門呀的一聲開了。

门呀的一声开了。


呀

他是誰呀？

他是谁呀？

See also: 吖

synonym of 啊 (“Sentence-final exclamation particle”) Normally used after words ending in -a, -o, -e, -i, -ü.


呢

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *nil): semantic 口 (“mouth”) + phonetic 尼 (OC *nil)
Ota (1987) suggests that the particle used in questions comes from 聻 (MC nriX) [Five Dynasties], a particle which may come from 爾 (MC nyeX, “that”), and that the particle used to indicate an action in progress comes from earlier 哩 [Yuan dynasty], which may come from 裏 (MC liX, “place”) [Tang dynasty–Five Dynasties].

Han compound

吶
膩
逆
爾
邇
le
年
哖

我們上漢語課呢。

我们上汉语课呢。

present continuous
present continuous#English

Sentence-final particle indicating continuation of an action or state, English present continuous. to be ...-ing


周

𠕛
𠱬
𠄗
𠕛
𠣘
淍
週
舟
州


和

CJKV/code

Sino-Xenic (和):
* → Japanese: 和(か) (ka)
* → Korean: 화(和) (hwa)
* → Vietnamese: hoà (和)

→ Thai: ฮั้ว (húua)

→ Vietnamese: và, hùa

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *ɡoːl, *ɡoːls): phonetic 禾 (OC *ɡoːl) + semantic 口 (“mouth”) – harmony. The original version was 龢, with the radical of the flute 𠎤 (> 龠) in its either archaic or contracted version perhaps to indicate the abstract concept of harmony through harmony in music.
; “and; with”
; “Japanese”

Han compound

(music) An ancient mouth organ similar to the sheng, but smaller; no longer used.


和

Classifier for the number of rinses when washing clothes.

Classifier for the number of times a dose of traditional Chinese medicine is boiled.


和

和牌


咱

→ Vietnamese: ta

Fusion of 自家 (MC dzijH kae, “self”) [Song] > Modern Mandarin zá (Lü, 1984). Fusion with 們／们 (men) produces the form with a nasal coda [Yuan], e.g. Modern Mandarin zán (Norman, 1988).

喒
偺
𠴰
倃
俺
㑑
玌
赧

used without 的; GT - General Taiwanese (no specific region identified)

(literary) A particle used after personal pronouns.


咱

喒
偺
𠴰
倃
俺
㑑
玌
赧

這咱

这咱


咱

喒
偺
𠴰
倃
俺
㑑
玌
赧

(obsolete on its own in Standard Chinese) Sentence-final modal particle for the imperative mood, similar to 吧 (ba).

(obsolete on its own in Standard Chinese) Sentence-final modal particle for the declarative mood.


哪

Used to indicate something that should be noticed.


哪

哪！人煞來啊！

哪！人煞来啊！

哪敢有？


哭

→ Vietnamese: khóc (哭, 泣)

In oracle bone inscriptions, ideogrammic compound (會意 /会意): 吅 (“loudly”) + person with long hair (Similar to 老 without the cane) – "cry; weep". The pictogram of the person with long hair corrupted into 犬. Evidence suggests 吅 could be an abbreviation of the sound component 咢 (OC *ŋaːɡ), making the character phono-semantic (形聲 /形声).
Shuowen Jiezi interprets it as a phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *ŋ̊ʰoːɡ): semantic 吅 (“to speak loudly”) + abbreviated phonetic 獄 (OC *ŋoɡ).
From Proto-Sino-Tibetan *kuːk (“to weep; to wail”); cognate with Mizo kûk (“to shriek”) (STEDT).
This seems to be an area word; compare Proto-Mon-Khmer *kuk ~ kuuk ~ kuək ~ kək (“to call”), Proto-Austronesian *-kuk (“sound of a sob”) (Schuessler, 2007).


唱

/t͡sʰuɔŋ²¹³/

/t͡sʰiaŋ²¹³/

/t͡sʰuɔŋ²¹³/

/t͡sʰiaŋ²¹³/

Characters in the same phonetic series (昌) (Zhengzhang, 2003)
Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *tʰjaŋs): semantic 口 + phonetic 昌 (OC *tʰjaŋ).
Same word as 倡 (OC *tʰjaŋs, “to lead; to advocate”). Schuessler (2007), reconstructing the Old Chinese minimally as *k-hlaŋh, considers it to be a Sino-Tibetan word; compare Burmese အချင်း (a.hkyang:, “song, poem”) and perhaps also Proto-Bodo-Garo *lʔəŋ (“to sing”).

cog

If we should indeed, at this moment, take advantage of our numbers, call ourselves the men of Prince Fusu and General Xiang Yan in pretense, and seize the initiative among the whole Empire, it is probable that many would spring into action in response.

The Records of the Grand Historian, by Sima Qian, c. 91 BCE

Jīn chéng yǐ wúzhòng zhà zìchēng Gōngzǐ Fúsū, Xiàng Yàn, wéi tiānxià chàng, yí duō yìngzhě.

今誠以吾衆詐自稱公子扶蘇、項燕，爲天下唱，宜多應者。

今诚以吾众诈自称公子扶苏、项燕，为天下唱，宜多应者。


商

Cao Wei
Chen dynasty
Du Yu
Eastern Han dynasty
Eastern Wei
Eastern Wu
Eastern Zhou dynasty
Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms
Han dynasty
Jin dynasty (1115–1234)
Jin dynasty (265–420)
Liang dynasty
Liao dynasty
Liu Song dynasty
Ming dynasty
Northern Qi
Northern Wei
Northern Zhou
Northern and Southern dynasties
Qin dynasty
Qing dynasty
Shang dynasty
Shu Han
Song dynasty
Southern Qi
Southern and Northern dynasties
Spring and Autumn period
Sui dynasty
Tang dynasty
Three Kingdoms
Warring States period
Western Han dynasty
Western Liao
Western Wei
Western Xia
Western Zhou dynasty
Xia dynasty
Xin dynasty
Yuan dynasty
Zhou dynasty

Traditionally it is considered that 商人 (shāngrén) is so named because this term originally refers to people from Shang dynasty, who tend to do business.
From 賒 (OC *hljaː) plus terminative suffix *-ŋ (Schuessler, 2007). See there for further etymology.

謪
𠘾
𠹧
𠼬
𠾃
𠿧
𡂦
𡃬
𡄚
𡅟
𥫐
𧶜
𧷞
𨝗

6除以2的商是3。

Shāng means zhāng 'to expand'; the yin-fluid begins to expand [while] the yang-fuild begins to contract; ….

Ban Gu, The Comprehensive Discussions in the White Tiger Hall, 79 CE, translated based on Tjan Tjoe Som's version

Shāng zhě, zhāng yě, yīnqì kāi zhāng, yángqì shǐ jiàng yě;.......

商者，張也，陰氣開張，陽氣始降也；……。

商者，张也，阴气开张，阳气始降也；……。

(music) the second note in the Chinese pentatonic scale

(～宿) (Chinese astronomy) Alternative name for 心 (xīn, “Heart mansion (one of the Twenty-Eight Mansions)”).


啊

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声): semantic 口 (“mouth”) + phonetic 阿 (OC *qaːl).

Han compound

Good boy, be good, be obedient okay?! Don't cry okay?!

Hǎo háizi, guāi, tīnghuà, ā! Bié kū le, ā!

好孩子，乖，聽話，啊！別哭了，啊！

好孩子，乖，听话，啊！别哭了，啊！

I've eaten already, OK. / I'm full now, alright.

我食飽咯啊

我食饱咯啊

You're so good, you're your mother's most obedient child, huh?!

Nǐ duó guāi ya, nǐ shì māma zuì guāi de háizi le, ā!

你多乖呀，你是媽媽最乖的孩子了，啊！

你多乖呀，你是妈妈最乖的孩子了，啊！

Hey, when you take the time to give our Jiajia review homework, let her improve her studies, eh?!

Āi, nǐ shénme shíhou chōu kòngr gěi wǒmen Jiājia fùxí fùxí gōngkè, ràng tā tígāo tígāo xuéxí shuǐpíng ā!

哎，你什麼時候抽空兒給我們佳佳複習複習功課，讓她提高提高學習水平啊！

哎，你什么时候抽空儿给我们佳佳复习复习功课，让她提高提高学习水平啊！

Used to express affirmation or exhortation.


啊

啊？你說什麼？

啊？你说什么？

Used to indicate doubt or questioning. what?, huh?, eh


啊

啊！真有這事兒？

啊！真有这事儿？

Used to indicate puzzled surprise. what? oh? huh?


啊

啊，好吧。


啊

→ English: ah (Singapore, Malaysia)

揀啊揀，揀著一個賣龍眼 / 揀啊揀，揀著一个賣龍眼 / 拣啊拣，拣着一个卖龙眼

kéng--ah kéng, kéng-tio̍h chi̍t ê bē lêng-géng


啊

2015, 黃瑋傑, “天光日”, in 《天光。日》, performed by 黃瑋傑:

In 1998, I went away from home to study faraway. Once I went back home, I got a shirt.

1998 ngiàn, ngài chhut-ngoi thu̍k-sû m̀ tî yán, kûi-a-to vuk-hâ, chhiu liâng to yit liâng sâm

1998年 𠊎出外讀書毋知遠 歸啊到屋下 就領到一領衫

1998年 𠊎出外读书毋知远 归啊到屋下 就领到一领衫

(Hakka) Used between a verb and a complement to indicate that something has happened within a short time and/or is immediately followed by another event.


問

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *mɯns): phonetic 門 (OC *mɯːn) + semantic 口.
Exoactive derivation of 聞 (OC *mɯn, “to hear”) with suffix *-s, literally "let (me) hear" (Schuessler, 2007). See there for more.

Han compound

to call to account; to hold to account; to take to task


啦

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声): semantic 口 (“mouth”) + phonetic 拉.

(Mandarin, colloquial) contraction of 了啊 (le a)

Used at the end of a sentence to indicate a change of state with a strong emotion.

Used at the end of a sentence to inform the beginning of an action with a strong emotion.


喊

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *qʰaːmʔ, *qʰrɯːmʔ, *ɡrɯːmʔ): semantic 口 (“mouth”) + phonetic 咸 (OC *ɡrɯːm).

Han compound

喊叫


嘴

/t͡su̯eɪ̯²¹⁴/

/t͡su̯əɻ²¹⁴/

/t͡su̯eɪ̯²¹⁴/

/t͡su̯əɻ²¹⁴/

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *ʔseʔ): semantic 口 + phonetic 觜 (OC *ʔse, *ʔse, *ʔseʔ).
Related to 觜 (OC *ʔse, *ʔse, *ʔseʔ, “horn-like hair on the owl-head; beak of a bird; mouth”).
Further etymology is unknown. Schuessler (2007) relates it to Tibetan མཚུལ་པ (mtshul pa, “lower part of the face; muzzle; beak”), which is from Proto-Sino-Tibetan *m-ts(j)ul (“lip; beak”) (STEDT).

inh

(anatomy) mouth (especially the part of the face associated with the mouth) (Classifier: 張／张 m)

(figurative) utterance; spoken words; speech

嘴佢！嘴佢！

尖沙嘴


回

Pictogram (象形): rotation (originally a spiral).
; "Hui"

alt. forms: 迴 /回 (huí)

往回走

回過身來

回过身来

turned around (one's head) and had a look

回頭看了一眼

回头看了一眼

使用後請放回原位。

使用后请放回原位。

我要拿回屬於我的東西。

我要拿回属于我的东西。

Used after a verb to indicate a movement back to the original place; back

Journey to the West has 100 chapters in total.

《西遊記》全書共一百回。

《西游记》全书共一百回。


回

For pronunciation and definitions of 回 – see 迴 (“to revolve; to rotate; to avoid; etc.”).
(This character is the simplified and variant form of 迴).
 Notes:
Simplified Chinese is mainly used in Mainland China, Malaysia, and Singapore.
Traditional Chinese is mainly used in Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan.


國

CJKV/code

Sino-Xenic (國):
* → Japanese: 国(こく) (koku)
* → Korean: 국(國) (guk)
* → Vietnamese: quốc (國)

→ Bouyei: guef

→ Khitan: 囯

→ Zhuang: guek

Characters in the same phonetic series (或) (Zhengzhang, 2003)
Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *kʷɯːɡ): semantic 囗 (“closure”) + phonetic 或 (OC *ɡʷɯːɡ).
The k-prefix derivation of 域 (OC *ɢʷrɯɡ, “boundary; territory”). Cognate with 閾 (OC *qʰʷrɯɡ, “threshold”) and 囿 (OC *ɢʷɯs, *ɡʷɯ, “park; garden”).
No obvious outside cognate exists. It may be related to Burmese ကွက် (kwak, “to be marked with a square or circular pattern; to be confined to a certain area”) (Schuessler, 2007).

cog-lite

国
囯
圀
囶
𡆿
囻
𡇅
䆐
戜
𤦂
囗
𡆸
𡆻
𡇎
𡇏
𡇕
𡈑
𢦾
𢧌
𤦒
或
𬪇
㕵
𠰧


圓

CJKV/code

Sino-Xenic (圓):
* → Japanese: 円(えん) (en)
* → Korean: 원(圓) (won)

⇒ Khmer: នំអ៊ី (num ʼii, “tangyuan”)

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *ɢon): semantic 囗 + phonetic 員 (OC *ɢon, *ɢun).
Borrowed from Tocharian B wänt-, Tocharian A wänt- (“to envelop, to surround”).

bor

圓的面積／圆的面积


在

Sino-Xenic (在):
* → Vietnamese: tại (在)

Characters in the same phonetic series (才) (Zhengzhang, 2003)
Phonetic compound (OC *zlɯːʔ, *zlɯːs): phonetic 才 (OC *zlɯː, *zlɯːs) + phonetic 士 (OC *zrɯʔ).
Now phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *zlɯːʔ, *zlɯːs): phonetic 才 (OC *zlɯː, *zlɯːs) + semantic 土 (“earth”).
在 was often visually identical to 才 (OC *zlɯː, *zlɯːs, “sprout”) in the oracle bone script and some of the bronze inscriptions. It may be either a phonetic loan or a figurative derivative.
Probably related to 栽 (OC *ʔslɯː, “to plant”) (Schuessler, 2007).

Han compound

扗
才
抂
𡉄
𡉈
𡉠
𥩴

樹頭徛予在，毋驚樹尾做風颱 / 树头徛予在，毋惊树尾做风台

chhiū-thâu khiā hō͘ chāi, m̄ kiaⁿ chhiū-bóe chò-hong-thai

事在人為

事在人为

成功貴在堅持。

成功贵在坚持。

去不去在你自己。


坐

→ Ai-Cham: zai⁶

Ideogrammic compound (會意 /会意): 留 (“to stay”) + 土 (“ground”).
Sino-Tibetan; cognate with Tangut 𗶠 (*dzu̱², “to sit”), Japhug amdzɯ (“to sit”) (Jacques, 2014; Zhang, Jacques, and Lai, 2019).

𡋲
𡊎
㘴
㘸
𡋐
𠱯
𡉡
𰉗
𭍻


報

CJKV/code

Sino-Xenic (報):
* → Japanese: 報(ほう) (hō)
* → Korean: 보(報) (bo)
* → Vietnamese: báo (報)

→ Lao: ປ່າວ (pāo, “announce”)

→ Thai: ป่าว (bpàao, “announce”)

→ Vietnamese: bảo

→ Zhuang: bau

Ideogrammic compound (會意 /会意): 㚔 (“handcuffs”) + 𠬝 (“to subdue”) – to convict; to punish; to declare guilty.


塊

Jerry Norman reconstructs Common Min *tɔi⁵ based on the coastal Min forms; it is unclear how the Northern Min forms relate to the Coastal Min forms. Possibly from 段 (OC *doːns, “section; segment”); compare 短 (OC *toːnʔ, “short”) > Xiamen Hokkien té (Coblin, n.d.).

块
凷
墤
㙕
𠚛
𡒽
圦
𡉇
块
块

(Hokkien) Classifier for songs and stories.

(Eastern Min, Hokkien) Classifier for places.


壞

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *ɡruːls): semantic 土 (“earth”) + phonetic 褱 (OC *ɡruːl, *ɡruːl). The radical of the earth is used since something that rots eventually becomes earth.
Compare Tibetan འདྲུལ ('drul, “to become putrid/rotten”), Tibetan བྲུལ (brul, “crumbles”) (Hill, 2019).

cog

坏
坯
坏
獪
乖
契
蒯

The saying runs: 'Many woodworms and the wood snaps, a large fissure and the wall collapses.'

The Book of Lord Shang, circa 3ʳᵈ century BCE

Yàn yuē: “Dù zhòng ér mù zhé, xì dà ér qiáng huài.”

諺曰：「蠹眾而木折，隙大而牆壞。」

谚曰：「蠹众而木折，隙大而墙坏。」


夏

Sagart (2023b) relates it to 暇 (OC *[g]ˤra-s, “leisure”) and Burmese အား (a:, “to be free (not in use; without obligations)”), the latter of which STEDT derives from Proto-Sino-Tibetan *k-ra (“strength; to win; classifier for people”) but does not compare to 夏. See 暇 for more.

昰
夓
𠀼
𠌘
𠍺
𡔰
𡕭
𡕻
𡕾
𡖃
𣋗
𤴞
𧈄
𩖳


外

CJKV/code

Sino-Xenic (外):
* → Japanese: 外(げ) (ge); 外(がい) (gai)
* → Korean: 외(外) (oe)
* → Vietnamese: ngoại (外)

→ Vietnamese: ngoài (“outside”)

→ Old Turkic: term

→ Turkmen: öweý

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *ŋʷaːds): semantic 卜 + phonetic 月 (OC *ŋod).
According to 学研漢和大字典 (Kenkyūsha Kanwa Dai Jiten), it is also an ideogrammic compound (會意 /会意); 月 originally represents a crescent moon (i.e. the moon with part “missing” to the observer). The character is thus interpreted as representing divination based on the partial phase of the moon, implying the remaining visible part of the moon is the moon's ‘outside’.
In oracle bone script, 外 was written identical to 卜, but they were distinguished by the fact that 卜 has a horizontal bar extending to the inside of the tortoise shell, while 外 has a horizontal bar extending to the outside.

Han compound

窗外

外表


多

CJKV/code

Sino-Xenic (多):
* → Japanese: 多(た) (ta)
* → Korean: 다(多) (da)
* → Vietnamese: đa (多)

→? Proto-Hlai: *hləːy

→? Proto-Tai: *ʰlaːjᴬ

Characters in the same phonetic series (多) (Zhengzhang, 2003)
Ideogrammic compound (會意 /会意) – two pieces of meat (肉). In the bronze script, 肉 was corrupted into 夕 due to visual similarity, making 多 into a duplication of 夕. The form with 夕 was inherited in later scripts.
Chi (2010) suggests that meat is scarce in ancient times, so two pieces of meat is a lot, citing a passage from Mencius:
:
Chang Ping-chuan suggests that it is the duplicative nature of the character that gives the meaning of "many", just like in 林 (“forest”), from 木 (“tree; wood”).
Etymology unclear. Schuessler (2007) suggests that it is in the same word family as 諸 (OC *tjaː, *tja, “many; all”) and 庶 (OC *hljaɡs, “many”).
Hill (2014, 2019) compares it to Tibetan ཆེ (che, “big”), མཐེ་བོ (mthe bo, “thumb”), Burmese တယ် (tai, “very”). STEDT derives the latter two from Proto-Sino-Tibetan *ta-j (“big”), whose Chinese comparandum is 大 (OC *daːds, “large”) instead; Baxter (1992) has also compared it to this etymon.
Baxter and Sagart (1998) propose that there may be a prefix *t- in this word that gives a mass noun reading, which may nullify the connection to Proto-Sino-Tibetan *ta-j (“big”). However, Baxter and Sagart (2014) may have withdrawn from this theory since they no longer indicate the *t as a prefix.
Also compare Proto-Tai *ʰlaːjᴬ (“many, much”), whence Thai หลาย (lǎai, “many”) and Zhuang lai (“many”), and Proto-Hlai *hləːy (“many”) (Gong Qunhu, 2002; Schuessler, 2007; Baxter and Sagart, 2014). Schuessler (2007) considers the Chinese word to be from Kra-Dai, but others suggest that the direction of borrowing may have been the other way (Li, 1977; Baxter and Sagart, 1998; Norquest, 2007).

Han etyl

七十者可以食肉矣。

多個方面

多个方面

多事之秋 ― duōshì zhī qiū

花發多風雨，人生足別離。

花发多风雨，人生足别离。

He bought four tickets, which was one too many.

Tā mǎi le sì zhāng piào, duō le yī zhāng.

他買了四張票，多了一張。

他买了四张票，多了一张。

屋企多咗一個人。

屋企多咗一个人。

to have more; to have too much; to have too many

just this much (meaning “just very few”)

咁多多


夜

Characters in the same phonetic series (亦) (Zhengzhang, 2003)
Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *laːɡs): phonetic 亦 (OC *laːɡ) + semantic 夕 (“moon”). 夕 (OC *ljaːɡ) may also serve as another phonetic component.
The lower-right portion is a corruption/graphical variant of 夕 (xī); the remainder (亠 + 亻) is a reduced and distorted form of 亦 (yì), used phonetically.
From Proto-Sino-Tibetan *ja-n (“night”) (STEDT); cognate with Mizo zân (“night”), Burmese ည (nya., “night”).
Schuessler (2007) believes 夜 (OC *laːɡs) and 夕 (OC *ljaːɡ) are distinct as Tibeto-Burman keeps the etyma *ja-n (“night”) and *rV-jak (“day; day (24 hours); night”) strictly separate. However, Baxter and Sagart (2014) suggest that 夜 (yè) and 夕 (xī) have clear etymological connections and thus reconstructs similar finals in both words.


夠

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *koː, *koːs, *kʰoː): semantic 多 + phonetic 句 (OC *koː, *koːs, *kos, *ɡo).

Han compound

夠日／够日 [Teochew] ― gao³ rig⁸ [Peng'im] ― whole day


天

CJKV/code

Sino-Xenic (天):
* → Japanese: 天(てん) (ten)
* → Korean: 천(天) (cheon)
* → Vietnamese: thiên (天)

A horizontal line above a man with outstretched arms 大 to indicate the sky (compare the original versions of 上). The other ancient representations of the character depicted a man with a large squared head, an anthropomorphic representation of heaven.
Original meaning of the word is “sky”. Such concept is difficult to depict with a pictogram, hence the current form. Perhaps influenced by the glyph, the character was frequently glossed in Old Chinese documents with 顛 (OC *tiːn, *tʰiːns, “crown of the head”), and such had led to incorrect hypotheses which regarded 天 (OC *qʰl'iːn) as a derivation of 顛 or 巔 (OC *tiːn, “top of the head/hill”).
This character was previously reconstructed to have a /*tʰ/-initial in Old Chinese, but this hypothesis has been largely discounted in recent reconstructions, in light of evidence from early Chinese accounts of dialectal pronunciations, transcription of other languages, as well as cognate/derived characters within Chinese, which has all pointed to a voiceless resonant initial /*l̥-/ in Old Chinese. According to chapter 1 of Shiming, by c. 200 CE, this initial had already produced dialectal variation in the pronunciation: People in central-western China pronounced it with the back of the tongue, like 顯 (MC xenX), while people in eastern China pronounced it with the tip of the tongue, like 坦 (MC thanX). An old northwestern dialect variant survives as 祆 (MC xen, “God of the Zoroastrians”), and the word 天竺 (MC then trjuwk, “India”) was used to transcribe Old Persian *Hind-uka ("India").
Further etymology is unknown. During the time when this term was reconstructed with a /*tʰ-/ initial, it was frequently compared with tengri, the name for God in early Turkic and Mongolic peoples' languages. This now appears unlikely. The only certain external cognate is the Central Bai (a language closely related to Chinese) word heinl (“sky, heaven”) /xẽ⁵⁵/. Chen (1998) proposes cognation with 祁連 (OC *g'ieg-lian) and 赫連 (OC *khak-lian), transcriptions of a Xiongnu word for "sky", which he also relates to 昊天 (OC *g'ôg-hlin).

och-l

𠀘
𠀡
𠑺
兲
𠕹
㕦
䒶
𦴞
𩇗
𩇞
靝/靔
𠀑
𬻃

天主

老天

我的天啊！

天助自助者。

(mythology or religion) Heaven as an impersonal deity; often translated as God

天橋／天桥

天窗 ― tiānchuāng ― sunroof

五更天

天不早了。

天生

天性

天才


她

她去了。

我認識她。

我认识她。

How can I stop missing her! (lit., "how can one make me not think of her!")

教我如何不想她！

And the man said, The woman whom thou gavest to be with me, she gave me of the tree, and I did eat.

新標點和合本 (Chinese Union Version with New Punctuation), 創世記 (Genesis) 3:12

Nà rén shuō: “Nǐ suǒ cì gěi wǒ, yǔ wǒ tóngjū de nǚrén, tā bǎ nà shù shàng de guǒzi gěi wǒ, wǒ jiù chī le.”

那人說：「你所賜給我、與我同居的女人，她把那樹上的果子給我，我就吃了。」

那人说：「你所赐给我、与我同居的女人，她把那树上的果子给我，我就吃了。」


她

2010, “三心兩意 [Don't Think Too Much]”, 巴布 (lyrics), 林東松 (music), performed by 黃文星 [Hwang Weng-Sing] and 曾昱嘉 [Tseng Yu-Jia]:

Her photo is already thrown to my bedside, but my heart is still filled with sorrow

i ê siòng-phìⁿ í-keng tàn tī chhn̂g-piⁿ, iá-sī móa-sim pi-ai

她的相片已經丟治床邊 還是滿心悲哀

她的相片已经丢治床边 还是满心悲哀

(Hokkien) alternative form of 伊 (i, “she, her”)


好

CJKV/code

Sino-Xenic (好):
* → Japanese: 好(こう) (kō)
* → Korean: 호(好) (ho)
* → Vietnamese: hiếu (好)

Characters in the same phonetic series (好) (Zhengzhang, 2003)
Ideogrammic compound (會意 /会意): 女 (“woman”) + 子 (“child”).
The widely accepted meaning of this character is that the characters for “female” (女) and “child” (子) were put together to form a compound because it was good for a woman to have a child. Similarly, it has been proposed that the compound originally refers to the mutual affection between the mother and child, which then extended to mean “good”. These theories are supported by the smaller 子 found in some oracle bones and bronze inscriptions. See also 保 and the original version of 乳.
However, broader interpretations of the second character 子 could lead to other theories. 子 could also mean “son”, so it may have meant two children, a boy and a girl next to each other, which is a good fortune to have a boy and a girl. 子 could also mean “man”, so it may have referred to the love between a man and a woman, which is good. Duan Yucai, in his annotated version of Shuowen, interpreted it as originally referring to the beauty of woman. Lastly, it could mean that the “attitude” of a girl was considered good.
The two pronunciations are cognate – pronunciation 2 is the *-s suffixed form, or exoactive/putative of pronunciation 1, literally “to consider good”. Compare 惡 (OC *qaːɡ, “bad; evil”) > 惡 (OC *qaːɡs, “to consider bad; to hate”).
This word has been compared with Proto-Sino-Tibetan *hu (“to raise; to rear; to nourish”): Proto-Lolo-Burmese *hu³, Abor-Miri (Tani) u, Mawo Northern Qiang χu, which is only attested in a limited number of languages. If this is correct, it may be related to 畜 (OC *l̥ʰuɡs, *l̥ʰuɡ, *hluɡ, “to raise; to rear; domesticated animal”). Alternatively, compare Tibetan མཁོ (mkho, “necessary, important”).
Cognate with Central Bai hux (“good”), which may be a loanword from Chinese.

cog

⿰女人
㚥
⿱女子
𡥃
𰠗
㝀
𡚽
𡥆
𢑒
𤫧
𩐔

⁶non ⁵hau ⁶lieu-li ⁸geq ⁵kaon ⁶zaon-he-ghe-gho ⁰vaq

儂好流利個講上海閒話𠲎？

侬好流利个讲上海闲话𠲎？

Could you not just ask if you don't know the way?

弗認得路末倷弗好問訊個？

弗认得路末倷弗好问讯个？

2019, 明日方舟 [Arknights]^(https://prts.wiki/w/夕/语音记录 https://zh.moegirl.org.cn/夕(明日方舟)#角色台词), spoken by 夕 [xī], scene: 任命助理:

Have I not said before that if I don't respond after you knock, you cannot enter?

⁷feq-⁰zy₆ ⁷seq-shiau₁ [sic]; ⁶ne ¹khau ⁶men ¹tsyu-gheu₆ ⁶ngou ¹iau₅-zy₆ ⁷feq ⁷taeq-⁰in₅; ⁶ne ⁰zy₆ ⁷feq-hau₃ ⁰tsin₅-le₂ ⁰keq₇ ⁰ma

弗是說歇，倷敲門之後我要是弗答應，倷是弗好進來個嗎？

弗是说歇，倷敲门之后我要是弗答应，倷是弗好进来个吗？

(dialectal Mandarin, Wu) can; to be able to


姓

CJKV/code

Sino-Xenic (姓):
* → Japanese: 姓(せい) (sei)
* → Korean: 성(姓) (seong)
* → Vietnamese: tính (姓)

→ Khmer: សែ (sae)

→ Thai: แซ่ (sɛ̂ɛ)

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *sleŋs): semantic 女 (“woman; female”) + phonetic 生 (OC *sʰleːŋ, *sreŋs).
Specialised form of 性 (xìng): “human nature; what is inborn” > “surname; clan name”.

Han compound

你的姓怎麼拼寫？

你的姓怎么拼写？

您貴姓？

您贵姓？


字

CJKV/code

Sino-Xenic (字):
* → Japanese: 字(じ) (ji)
* → Korean: 자(字) (ja)
* → Vietnamese: tự (字)

→ Proto-Tai: *ɟɤ:ᴮ (“name”)

Lao: ຊື່ (sư̄, “name”)

Thai: ชื่อ (chʉ̂ʉ, “name”)

Zhuang: coh (“name”)

desc

→ Vietnamese: chữ (“script; letter; writing; word”), chửa (“to be pregnant”)

Characters in the same phonetic series (子) (Zhengzhang, 2003)
Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *zlɯs): semantic 宀 (“roof”) + phonetic 子 (OC *ʔslɯʔ, “child”).
From Proto-Sino-Tibetan *tsa ~ za (“child; to give birth; to take care; to be kind”). Related to:
* 子 (OC *ʔslɯʔ, “child, son”) (also its phonetic component)
* 慈 (OC *zɯ, “to be kind, loving”)
* 滋 (OC *ʔsɯ, “to nourish, to grow”)
* 詞 (OC *ljɯ, “word, term”)
* 辭 (OC *ljɯ, “word, from testimony”)
Original sense (1): “to become pregnant, to give birth to, to nurture, to love” has essentially become obsolete. The sense (2) “letter, character” is either from a different root or a derivation from the sense “to produce, to generate”.
Cognate with Tibetan ཚ་བོ (tsha bo, “nephew”), Tibetan ཚ་རུས (tsha rus, “descendant”), Tibetan བཙའ (btsa', “to give birth to; to guard”), Tibetan མཛའ (mdza', “kind, peaceful, friendly”) (Quan, 1996), Burmese စာ (ca, “writing, letter”).

cog

Zhongni is the courtesy name of Confucius.

仲尼是孔子的字。

(historical) courtesy name; Chinese-style name (a name traditionally given to Chinese males at the age of 20 and females at the age of 15)