底

possessive particle, equivalent to modern Mandarin 的 (de)


上

CJKV/code

Sino-Xenic (上):
* → Japanese: 上(じょう) (jō)
* → Korean: 상(上) (sang)
* → Vietnamese: thượng (上, “upper”), thướng (上, “to go up”)

Ideogram (指事): a line above another (contrast 下 (xià)) — up. Originally written as 𠄞, but changed to this form to prevent confusion with 二 (èr).
From Proto-Sino-Tibetan *s-tjaŋ (“top”). Cognate with Tibetan སྟེང (steng), Tibetan ཡང་རྩེ (yang rtse, “summit; pinnacle”) (Bodman, 1980), Mizo zo (“to be high”), zah (“to respect; to revere”) (STEDT).
Shijing rimes indicate occasional level tone for pronunciation 2 (Schuessler, 2007).
Pronunciation 1 is the exopassive of pronunciation 2 with suffix *-s, literally meaning "what has been raised" (Schuessler, 2007). The rising tone in Middle Chinese words with voiced stop initials regularly evolves into departing tone in Mandarin. Pronunciation 3 results from 叶韻 (xiéyùn), i.e. its pronunciation has been artificially changed to preserve rhymes in classical poetry.

cog

(～聲) (Chinese phonetics) rising tone in Chinese phonetics


不

CJKV/code

Sino-Xenic (不):
* → Japanese: 不(ふ) (fu)
* → Korean: 불(不) (bul), 부(不) (bu)
* → Vietnamese: bất (不)

Emperor Zhao of Han
Shang Dynasty
Shuowen
naming taboo

Characters in the same phonetic series (不) (Zhengzhang, 2003)
Pictogram (象形): the calyx of a flower. 不 was then composed into a phono-semantic character with the pictograph for mouth (口), to form 否 (OC *brɯʔ, *pɯʔ), representing “no” (negation). This composed meaning then spread back to the original character 不, making it a synonym of 否. A new character of 柎 (OC *po) was eventually created to represent the original meaning of calyx.
Following Shuowen’s interpretation, Karlgren and Wieger interpret it as a bird flying toward the sky (一). The sky being the limit for the bird, thus the idea of negation.
Old Chinese had two sets of negatives: the initial *p-series and the initial *m-series. 不 is the prototype of the *p-series of negatives. Although it is the usual Literary Chinese negative attested from the oracle bone script down, its current usage is now confined to Mandarin dialects. In the oracle bone inscriptions, a total of five negative particles can be found: 不, 弗, 毋, 勿 and 非. With the exception of 非 (discussed later), the remaining can be neatly organised into the following system:
Takahashi (1996) argued that the *m-type negatives are modal (i.e. negative verbs which are thought of as controllable by the Shang), whereas the *p-type negatives are non-modal (imply uncontrollability; actions which are beyond the control of living persons).
In the *p-series, 不 usually goes with intransitive verbs in the oracle bone script, and 弗 (OC *pɯd) with transitive ones, although there are some glaring exceptions. Little or no pattern can be discerned in the *m-type category. Takahashi (1996) also proposed that the difference between the two vowel series was whether they preceded “stative, eventive, passive” (*-V series) or “non-stative, non-eventive, active” (*-ɯd series) verbs.
It is possible that the two parallel series of negatives in Old Chinese represent a fusion of the common Sino–Tibetan *ma (“no, not”) (carried by the eastward-migrating early Sino–Tibetans) and an indigenous negation system in Central China, and that the merger had been complete by the Shang times. Compare a similar system in Proto-Tai: *ɓawᴮ (“not [strong form 1]”), *boːᴮ (“not [strong form 2]”), *miːᴬ (“not [weak form]”); Thai บ่ (bɔ̀ɔ, “(literary, archaic, dialectal) not”).
The development from Old Chinese to Middle Chinese was not regular. The character 不 replaced 弗 (OC *pɯd, MC *piut), to respect the naming taboo for Emperor Zhao of Han, although the pronunciation has remained in nearly all topolects (e.g. Beijing Mandarin bù, Guangzhou Cantonese bat¹, Meixian Hakka bud⁵, Shanghainese Wu peq). The Modern Standard Mandarin pronunciation is also from this checked coda word, but this word escaped from regular sound changes during its evolution to the modern pronunciation bù. The expected reading is fu (tone undetermined), with labiodentalisation. The rising-tone pronunciation had a Middle Chinese homophone 否 (“not”), which is now primarily used in compounds, and demonstrates the regular development into modern f-. Another example of a high-frequency word escaping this sound change is 父 (OC *paʔ, *baʔ, “dad”), which resulted in the late coinage of the character 爸 (bà).
不 is cognate with other negation particles in the *p-type category:
* 弗 (OC *pɯd, “not”);
* 非 (OC *pɯj, “not be; not”) – can be safely regarded as a fusion of 不 (OC *pɯ, *pɯʔ, *pɯ', “not”) and 惟 (OC *ɢʷi, “to be”);
* 否 (OC *brɯʔ, *pɯʔ, “not; to be wrong”);
* 匪 (OC *pɯjʔ, “it is not; to be not”); and
* 棐 (OC *pɯjʔ, “it is not; to be not”).
Cognate with Thai บ่ (bɔ̀ɔ, “(literary, archaic, dialectal) not”) (Schuessler, 2007).

cog

這個不好。

这个不好。

他不愛你。

他不爱你。

你是日本人嗎？不，我不是。

你是日本人吗？不，我不是。

*Intonational high pitch here.
Aren't you Japanese? Yes, I am Japanese.

Nǐ bú* shì Rìběnrén ma? Bù, wǒ shì Rìběnrén.

你不是日本人嗎？不，我是日本人。

你不是日本人吗？不，我是日本人。

1965 March 15, “周恩来总理在第三届全国人民代表大会第一次会議上作政府工作报告”, in 中华人民共和国全国人民代表大会常务委員会公报, number 77, page 12:

Are these actually unachievable? Is it bragging or big talk? No, these are achievable. It's neither bragging nor big talk.

Nándào zhè shì zuòbudào de ma? Shì chuīniúpí, fàngdàpào ma? Bù, shì zuòdedào de. Jì bùshì chuīniúpí, yě bùshì fàngdàpào.

难道这是做不到的嗎？是吹牛皮、放大炮嗎？不，是做得到的。旣不是吹牛皮，也不是放大炮。

難道這是做不到的嗎？是吹牛皮、放大炮嗎？不，是做得到的。旣不是吹牛皮，也不是放大炮。

2011, 盧靜文, 《一生不能不懂的教育學故事》, Taipei: 知青頻道, →ISBN, page 137:

Socrates enlightened his students, "You said lying to a friend is an evil deed, but if a commander falsely claims in battle that reinforcements are on their way in order to boost morale even though there are no reinforcements in actuality, would you say this kind of lying is evil?" The students said, "No, this is a good deed."

Sūgélādǐ hái zài qǐfā xuéshēng: “Nǐ shuō qīpiàn péngyǒu shì èxìng, kěshì zài zhànzhēng shí tǒngshuài wèi le gǔwǔ shìqì, huì jiǎchēng yuánjūn jiùyào dào le, shíjìshàng bìng wú yuánjūn, nǐ shuō zhè zhǒng qīpiàn shì èxìng ma?” Xuéshēng shuō: “Bù, zhè shì shànxìng.”

蘇格拉底還在啟發學生：「你説欺騙朋友是惡行，可是在戰爭時統帥為了鼓舞士氣，會假稱援軍就要到了，實際上並無援軍，你説這種欺騙是惡行嗎？」學生説：「不，這是善行。」

苏格拉底还在启发学生：「你说欺骗朋友是恶行，可是在战争时统帅为了鼓舞士气，会假称援军就要到了，实际上并无援军，你说这种欺骗是恶行吗？」学生说：「不，这是善行。」

Used as an answer of refutation to a polar question: no (to a positive polar question); yes (to a negative polar question)

你愛吃紅蘿蔔不？

你爱吃红萝卜不？

(regional) Used to form polar questions, placed at the end of a question.

(colloquial) Question particle placed at the end of the sentence.

Illustrious was the House of Zhou, And the appointment of God came at the proper season.

The Classic of Poetry, c. 11ᵗʰ – 7ᵗʰ centuries BCE, translated based on James Legge's version

有周不顯、帝命不時。

有周不显、帝命不时。

^† Meaningless particle used in poems and other texts.


且

Pictogram (象形). Multiple interpretations:
* A stone altar – original form of 祖 (OC *ʔsaːʔ).
* A sacrificial vessel used for chopping and holding meat, as viewed from above (Wang, 1923) – original form of 俎 (OC *ʔsraʔ).
* An erect penis, the symbol of the male ancestor (Guo, 1931) – original form of 祖 (OC *ʔsaːʔ).
In the oracle bones and bronze inscriptions, this character was commonly used as 祖 (OC *ʔsaːʔ); usage as 俎 (OC *ʔsraʔ) is not attested until the Warring States period in the bamboo script. See also the original version of 查.
; “and; also; almost; be going to”


丕

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *pʰrɯ): phonetic 不 (OC *pɯ, *pɯʔ, *pɯ') + semantic 一


之

Characters in the same phonetic series (之) (Zhengzhang, 2003)
Ideogrammic compound (會意 /会意): 止 (“foot”) + 一 (“the beginning place”); compound meaning “to go”. It doesn't represent a sprout or a plant, as folk etymology claims.
The footprint pointing upwards became a point, as in the right component of 往 (which, in this case, is unrelated to 主).
; demonstrative pronoun "this; he; she; it"
; "to go; to proceed"

Han compound

† - may use corresponding classifier in certain contexts

while 渠 is more common in other varieties

Chinese varieties in general do not distinguish gender

distinctions are only sometimes made in writing.佢 is commonly used in Yue

That we the Zhou migrated East — that was wholly reliant on Jin and Zheng.

Wǒ Zhōu zhī dōngqiān, Jìn, Zhèng shì yī.

我周之東遷，晉、鄭是依。

我周之东迁，晋、郑是依。

[Y]ou certainly are not a fish. That you do not know the happiness of fishes is a complete and valid argument.

Zǐ gù fēi yú yě, zǐ zhī bùzhī yú zhī yuè quán yǐ.

子固非魚也，子之不知魚之樂全矣。

子固非鱼也，子之不知鱼之乐全矣。

Despite that I will die, there will be children who survive me.

雖我之死，有子存焉。

虽我之死，有子存焉。

When the Grand Course was pursued, a public and common spirit ruled all under the sky.

The Book of Rites, c. 4ᵗʰ – 2ⁿᵈ century BCE, translated based on James Legge's version

大道之行也，天下為公。

大道之行也，天下为公。

subordinate clause
subordinate clause#English

(archaic) Particle infixed in a subject-predicate construct acting as a nominalizer or indicating a subordinate clause.


乎

乎，原來是按呢喔！

乎，原来是按呢喔！

(Taiwanese Hokkien) modal particle expressing understanding, comprehension, realization: oh!


也

Pictogram (象形) — A child (子) with their mouth (口) open crying. The original form of 嗁 (OC *l'eː, “to cry”) (Ji Xusheng, 2004). The child's arms were removed during bronze inscriptions and the two components fused together in the modern form.
Other various possible explanations include:
* The traditional glyph origin given in Shuowen explains the character to be a pictogram (象形) of female genitalia.
* It was once interchangeable with 它 and may have originated as a simplification. Hence, it could be the pictogram of a snake.
* It may have been created to represent the modal particle (語氣詞／语气词 (yǔqìcí)). In some bronze inscriptions, it appears to be a mouth (口) with a curved line descending from it to represent air coming out of the mouth.
* It is possibly a pictogram (象形) of an ancient funnel or wash basin. It may be an early form of 匜.
* It may have signified a big-headed scorpion with its legs flattened, signifying as something very "flat" or "stretched out".
; classical sentence-ending copulative particle, topic particle
Unclear. Possibly Sino-Tibetan, connectable to Tibetan ལ (la), which is often used as a marker (for oblique locative, dative, possessor in constructions with a copula verb, etc.) but also a topicalizer like ནི (ni, “as for”) (Schuessler, 2007).
On the other hand, Pulleyblank (1995) notes the similarity with anteclassical 唯 (OC *ɢʷi) as a copula and a topicalizer.
; also, too, as well

zh-l

語氣詞／语气词 (yǔqìcí)

𠃟
𦫴
𦬀
𠔄
𠃒
啊
叶
亦

我亦人也。

In the west there are great mountains, which are the tallest in the world.

Qí xī yǒu dà shān, tiānxià zhì gāo zhě yě.

其西有大山，天下至高者也。

Is he a noble person? He is a noble person.

The Analects of Confucius, c. 475 – 221 BCE

君子人與？君子人也。

君子人与？君子人也。

Teng is a small kingdom, between Qi and Chu. Should we serve Qi? Or Should we serve Chu?

Téng xiǎoguó yě, jiān yú Qí Chǔ. Shì Qí hū? Shì Chǔ hū?

滕小國也，間於齊楚。事齊乎？事楚乎？

滕小国也，间于齐楚。事齐乎？事楚乎？

From this we may see that if somebody lacks a commiserating heart, they are not a human being.

Yóushì guān zhī, wú cèyǐn zhī xīn, fēi rén yě.

由是觀之，無惻隱之心，非人也。

由是观之，无恻隐之心，非人也。

Though the myriad things are many, their government is one.

萬物雖多，其治一也。

万物虽多，其治一也。

(Classical) Particle used at the end of copular constructions involving a nominal predicate; to be (although not grammatically a verb)

Life and death are [matters of] destiny. That there is the constancy of night and dawn is [a matter of] Heaven.

Sǐ shēng, mìng yě, qí yǒu yè dàn zhī cháng, tiān yě.

死生，命也，其有夜旦之常，天也。

That Jie and Zhou lost the empire was because they lost their people; that they lost their people was because they lost their hearts.

Jié Zhòu zhī shī tiānxià yě, shī qí mín yě; shī qí mín zhě, shī qí xīn yě.

桀紂之失天下也，失其民也；失其民者，失其心也。

桀纣之失天下也，失其民也；失其民者，失其心也。

Often used more loosely than the English copula to indicate a cause or relation.

回也，不愚。

As for a man's life, is it hazy like this all along? Or is it mine alone which is hazy, and there are others who are not?

Rén zhī shēng yě, gù ruò shì máng hū! Qí wǒ dú máng, ér rén yì yǒu bù máng zhě hū!

人之生也，固若是芒乎！其我獨芒，而人亦有不芒者乎！

人之生也，固若是芒乎！其我独芒，而人亦有不芒者乎！

Generally concerning the difficulty of carrying out the law, not only the imperial realm but kingdoms are also [faced with] this.

Fán fǎshù zhī nán xíng yě, bù dú wànchéng, qiānchéng yì rán.

凡法術之難行也，不獨萬乘，千乘亦然。

凡法术之难行也，不独万乘，千乘亦然。

(Classical) Topic-marking particle used at the end of noun phrases.

When a man is capped [at the age of twenty], his father instructs him; when a girl is married, her mother instructs her.

Zhàngfū zhī guàn yě, fù mìng zhī; nǚzǐ zhī jià yě, mǔ mìng zhī.

丈夫之冠也，父命之；女子之嫁也，母命之。

When the Three Dynasties gained the empire, it was through benevolence; when they lost the empire, it was through lack of benevolence.

Sāndài zhī dé tiānxià yě yǐ rén, qí shī tiānxià yě yǐ bù rén.

三代之得天下也以仁，其失天下也以不仁。

Duke Zhao of Lu was once bereaved of his mother when he was a child, and had a foster mother who was kind. When she died, the Duke could not bear it.

The Book of Rites, c. 4ᵗʰ – 2ⁿᵈ century BCE

Xīzhě, Lǔ Zhāogōng shào sàng qí mǔ, yǒu címǔ liáng. Jí qí sǐ yě, gōng fú rěn yě.

昔者，魯昭公少喪其母，有慈母良。及其死也，公弗忍也。

昔者，鲁昭公少丧其母，有慈母良。及其死也，公弗忍也。

when, at the time of; especially commonly used for temporal topics, often as 及其……也.

Meng Wu Bo asked. "Is Zilu benevolent?" The Master said, "I do not know."

Mèng Wǔ Bó wèn: “Zǐlù rén hū?” Zǐ yuē: “Bù zhī yě.”

孟武伯問：「子路仁乎？」子曰：「不知也。」

孟武伯问：「子路仁乎？」子曰：「不知也。」

In that age, they did not find value in sturdy chariots and good horses; they did not find pleasure in carvings and adornments.

Dāngshì zhī shí, jiānchē liángmǎ bù zhī guì yě, kèlòu wéncǎi bù zhī xǐ yě.

當是之時，堅車良馬不知貴也，刻鏤文采不知喜也。

当是之时，坚车良马不知贵也，刻镂文采不知喜也。

Everybody knows the use in being useful, but nobody knows the use in being useless.

Rén jiē zhī yǒuyòng zhī yòng, ér mò zhī wúyòng zhī yòng yě.

人皆知有用之用，而莫知無用之用也。

人皆知有用之用，而莫知无用之用也。

continuous aspect
continuous aspect#English

(Classical) Verb phrase-final particle marking continuous aspect, especially common for assertions of unchanging fact.


了

desc

→ English: already, liao (Singapore English) (semantic loan)

According to the Shuowen Jiezi, a pictogram (象形) of a baby without arms. Compare with 子, where the arms are visible. The Shuowen defines 了 as "the crossing of lower legs".
In the Shuowen Jiezi Zhu, a commentary to the Shuowen Jiezi, it is said that the pictogram instead depicts entangled legs (了戾).
Its relation with the meaning "to finish" is likely via sound loan, but an argument can be made about "entangled legs" → "tie"→ "finish".
Unrelated to 亨.
Verb “to finish; to be completed” > perfective aspect particle (了₁, weakened form) > change-of-state modal particle (了₂). It eventually replaced classical 矣 (OC *ɢlɯʔ).
Two kinds of particle uses of 了 can be distinguished: the perfective aspect particle after verbs (conventionally written as 了₁) and the sentence-final modal particle (了₂). It is generally accepted (Wu, 1998) that these two uses of 了 are derived from the concrete verb “to finish”. The grammaticalisation of this verb had become common in the Tang Dynasty, initially in the form of ‹verb + (object) + perfective 了› to indicate the completion of an action.
The perfective particle subsequently underwent further grammaticalisation to become the sentence-final change-of-state modal particle; Liu (1985) has demonstrated that this last step may have involved the coalescence of sentence-final 了 with 也 in certain Mandarin dialects, as the pronunciations of 了₁ and 了₂ are distinct in these dialects, with 了₂ rhyming with 也.
Contrary to the suggestion in Schuessler (2007), this word is not related to Vietnamese rồi, due to the non-existent correspondence between any given phonemes. Thai แล้ว (lɛ́ɛo, “to be finished; already; then, afterwards”), Lao ແລ້ວ (lǣu, “to finish; to be completed; perfective particle”) are loans from Chinese.

cog

He has become a college student / He is a college student now.

他是大學生了。

他是大学生了。

Used at the end of a sentence to indicate a change of state.


于

亐
亏
𠂌/ancient
丂
亐
亏
亐
亏
亐
亏

單于

单于

淳于


亞

CJKV/code

Sino-Xenic (亞):
* → Japanese: 亜(あ) (a)
* → Korean: 아(亞) (a)
* → Vietnamese: Á (亞)

東亞

东亚

亞裔

亚裔

亞太地區

亚太地区

(～洲) Short for 亞細亞／亚细亚 (Yàxìyà, “Asia”).

Used in transcription.
Short for 亞細亞／亚细亚 (Yàxìyà, “Asia”).


介

→ Proto-Tai: *klecꟲ

Proto-Southwestern Tai: *kletᴰ

Thai: เกล็ด (glèt)

Ideogrammic compound (會意 /会意): 人 (“person”) + two marks encompassing, indicating "in between". Folk etymology interprets the two marks as two components of an armor.
; "to assist"


仔

Characters in the same phonetic series (子) (Zhengzhang, 2003)
Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *ʔslɯ, *ʔslɯʔ): semantic 人 (“person”) + phonetic 子 (OC *ʔslɯʔ)
Cognate with 子 (OC *ʔslɯʔ) and 崽 (OC *ʔslɯːʔ, *srɯː, *srɯː).

Han compound

崽
子
子
囝
兒
亜
啊
也
兒
欸
之

肥仔 [Cantonese] ― fei⁴ zai² [Jyutping] ― fatty

後生仔／后生仔 [Cantonese] ― hau⁶ saang¹ zai² [Jyutping] ― young man

(Cantonese, dialectal Hakka, Northern Min) Diminutive suffix.

Denotes a young male of a particular trait.

打工仔 [Cantonese] ― daa² gung¹ zai² [Jyutping] ― young worker

拔萃仔 [Cantonese] ― bat⁶ seoi⁶ zai² [Jyutping] ― DBS kid

日本仔 [Cantonese] ― jat⁶ bun² zai² [Jyutping] ― Japanese guy

Denotes a young male of a particular occupation or background, often demeaningly.


來

CJKV/code

Sino-Xenic (來):
* → Japanese: 来(らい) (rai)
* → Korean: 래(來) (rae)
* → Vietnamese: lai (來)

Shuowen
Warring States period
Western Zhou

Pictogram (象形) of wheat – original character of 麥 (OC *mrɯːɡ, “wheat”) or 麳 (OC *rɯː, “wheat”). The line in the middle represents the ear, the two lines pointing upwards represent leaves, and the lines pointing downwards represent the stem and roots. An additional horizontal line was often added at the top end of the character, possibly used to emphasize the ear of the wheat. Compare 禾; both are unrelated to 釆.
This character has been borrowed for “to come” since the oracle bone script. During the Western Zhou and Warring States periods, additional semantic components, such as 止 (“foot”) or 辵 (“to walk”), were added to differentiate the original sense from the borrowed sense. However, these additions were not inherited in later scripts.
Some consider the derivative 麥 from the addition of 夊 (“to walk slowly”) to be the original form for the meaning “to come”. If so, their meanings have interchanged due to frequent use of 來 for “to come”.
Shuowen connects “wheat” and “to come” from a mythological standpoint: 天所來也 (“it comes from the heavens”). This may be supported by archaeological evidence, which suggests that wheat is not native to China, but originated in the Fertile Crescent.
來 and 麥 have both been reconstructed to begin with *mr- in Old Chinese. The former retains the liquid as /l/, while the latter retains the nasal /m/.
From Proto-Sino-Tibetan *la-j ~ ra (“to come”) (STEDT). Cognate with 迨 (OC *l'ɯːʔ, “to reach; until”), 賚 (OC *rɯːs, “to bestow”), Burmese လာ (la, “to come”). Also cognate with 蒞 (OC *rɯbs, “to arrive”) according to Schuessler (2007).

inh

来
𧼛
倈
逨
徠
来
麳
䅘

(～母) (Chinese linguistics) the Middle Chinese initial of 來 (MC loj)


俞

In oracle bone script, it was likely a phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声): semantic 凡 + phonetic inverted 由 (OC *lɯw), hence a form vaguely similar to 甲. It's also possible that the phonetic component is instead an ancient form of 鏃 (OC *ʔsoːɡ).
In bronze inscriptions, 凡 corrupted into 舟, and the bottom-right subcomponent of 甲 gradually corrupted into two lines 巜 (now written 刂). The upper-right subcomponent (vaguely similar to 口) was eventually stylized as (亼) and moved to the top of the character in bamboo slips. Eventually, 舟 was further corrupted into 月, arriving at the modern form.
Unrelated to 前, 刖, 巜, and 巛.


個

CJKV/code

Sino-Xenic (個):
* → Japanese: 個(こ) (ko)
* → Korean: 개(個) (gae)
* → Vietnamese: cá (個)

Wutunhua: -ge

→? Baba Malay: punya (semantic loan)

→? Vietnamese: cái

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *kaːls): semantic 亻 (“person”) + phonetic 固 (OC *kaːs).
The semantics may have developed along the grammaticalisation process "bamboo stalk" (箇) > "piece, item" > "classifier for every category of noun" > "possessive particle, generic particle". If so, it would then possibly be cognate with 竿 (OC *kaːn, “bamboo, rod”). Compare Tibetan མཁར་བ (mkhar ba), འཁར་བ ('khar ba, “walking stick, staff”) and Thai ก้าน (gâan, “stem, stalk”).
; Southern Min classifier and possessive particle
; Wu classifier and possessive particle

Han compound

个
箇
个
的
亓
ㄟ
兮
ケ
亇

may use corresponding classifier in certain contexts

揀啊揀，揀著一個賣龍眼 / 揀啊揀，揀著一个賣龍眼 / 拣啊拣，拣着一个卖龙眼

kéng--ah kéng, kéng-tio̍h chi̍t ê bē lêng-géng

一個鐘頭

一个钟头

九個月

九个月

三個月

三个月

Running two or three kilometers in one go is a piece of cake for him.

Tā yīxià pǎo gè liǎng sān gōnglǐ dōu bùzàihuàxià.

他一下跑個兩三公里都不在話下。

他一下跑个两三公里都不在话下。

The age difference between them is only about one or two years.

他們倆就差個一兩歲。

他们俩就差个一两岁。

(Mandarin, colloquial) Particle, placed between a verb and numbers, showing that the following numbers are approximate, not accurate.

have a meal, take a shower and have some rest

吃個飯，洗個澡，休息休息

吃个饭，洗个澡，休息休息

We met yesterday, and chatted about how we've been recently.

Wǒmen zuótiān jiàn le gè miàn, liáo le liáo jìnkuàng.

我們昨天見了個面，聊了聊近況。

我们昨天见了个面，聊了聊近况。

(Mandarin, Cantonese, colloquial) Particle, placed between a verb and its object or complement, adding a sense of ease, swiftness and one-offness to the action.

It feels like yesterday when I reminisce about those stories in the past.

Nàxiēgè nián de shì xiànzài huíyì qǐlái háishì jìyìyóuxīn.

那些個年的事現在回憶起來還是記憶猶新。

那些个年的事现在回忆起来还是记忆犹新。

(Mandarin, colloquial) Particle used after 些 (xiē).

今兒個

今儿个

(dialectal Mandarin) Particle used in some time-related words.

係噉個喎

系噉个㖞

(dialectal) Sentence-final declarative, affirmative, or prohibitive particle. Equivalent to Mandarin 的 (de), 了 (le).

(Cantonese, pronunciation spelling) Vowel harmony form of 嘅 (ge3, “emphasis particle used at the end of declarative sentences”), pronounced as 個／个 (go3) when followed by sentence final particles with vowel o, such as 喎／㖞 (wo3).


光

CJKV/code

Sino-Xenic (光):
* → Japanese: 光(こう) (kō)
* → Korean: 광(光) (gwang)
* → Vietnamese: quang (光)

Ideogrammic compound (會意 /会意): 火 (“fire”) + 卩 (“kneeling person”) – fire over a person's head, emphasizing the shining of light (Shuowen).
From Proto-Sino-Tibetan *hwaŋ (“shine; bright; yellow”). Cognate with 黃 (OC *ɡʷaːŋ, “yellow”), 曠 (OC *kʰʷaːŋs, “bright; well-lit”), Burmese ဝင်း (wang:, “bright”).

inh

㫕
灮
炗
炚
炛
烡
𠈑
𤉭
𤎫
𤐥
𰭧
㶢

賣光了

卖光了

我已經用光了所有的錢。

我已经用光了所有的钱。

Lí m̄-thang chiong chîⁿ ēng kah kng kng.

你毋通將錢用甲光光。

你毋通将钱用甲光光。

Particle used after verbs to show exhaustion or completion; until none is left

光明

呢度好光。

這間房間真光。

这间房间真光。

光臨／光临

光顧／光顾


兮

Originally the same character as 乎 (OC *ɢaː). The oracle bone form consists of 丂 (“fork in a tree”) and two vertical strokes above; the two strokes are parallel in most oracle bone attestations, possibly representing finer branches (i.e. the sound produced by wind blows past these branches).

(Central Min, Puxian Min) Possessive particle.


其

Vietnamese: cơ

In the oracle bone script, it was originally 𠀠, a pictogram (象形) of a basket.
In the bronze inscriptions, 丌 was added under the basket to represent a stand. It may also have acted as a phonetic component. Hence, the modified version was 𠔝. See also the bottom component of 眞.
Later borrowed for an Old Chinese pronoun. The derivative 箕 (OC *kɯ) refers to the original word.
; third-person possessive pronoun
; modal particle "should; probably"

酈食其

郦食其


冇

From the removal of the two inner strokes from 有 (“to have”).
Attested at least since 1672, in 《星餘筆記》 by 王鉞:
From 無 (MC mju, “to not have”). In some varieties, such as Cantonese and Xiang, there seems to be fusion or analogy with 有 (MC hjuwX, “to have”) (Chan, 1998; Schuessler, 2007).

When filing pleas, peasants in the Ning county (西寧縣, modern 鬱南縣) often use the local popular writing, it is peculiar when first seen, but when accustomed, each has its meaning, for example: … 冇, sounds like 茂, means "to not have".

Níng sú pǔbǐ suǒ chén diésù duō yòng tǔsú shū, chūjiàn hài'è, xíxián yì gè yǒu yìyì, lìng lüèjì shùzì:...... 冇, yīn mào, wèi wúyǒu yě.

寧俗樸鄙所陳牒訴多用土俗書，初見駭愕，習閒亦各有義意，令略記數字：……冇，音茂，謂無有也。

宁俗朴鄙所陈牒诉多用土俗书，初见骇愕，习闲亦各有义意，令略记数字：……冇，音茂，谓无有也。

我冇同佢講。

我冇同佢讲。

佢幾個月都冇嚟。

佢几个月都冇嚟。

(dialectal Mandarin, Cantonese, Xiang) have not; did not (do something) (indicating non-completion of a verb)


出

/t͡sʰzʷəʔ⁵⁵/

/t͡sʰz̩ʷœʔ⁵⁵/

/t͡sʰzʷəʔ⁵⁵/

/t͡sʰz̩ʷœʔ⁵⁵/

Ideogrammic compound (會意 /会意): 止 (“foot”) + 凵 (“cave”) – to step out of a cave; to exit. Compare 各.
By the Qin dynasty, the character has lost its original shape. Based on the distorted form, Shuowen mistakenly interprets the character as a pictogram (象形) of a plant (屮) growing outwards.
STEDT derives this word from Proto-Sino-Tibetan *s-twak (“to come or go out; to emerge”); compare Burmese ထွက် (htwak, “to go or come out; to produce or yield; to leave”), Proto-Lolo-Burmese *ʔ-twakᴴ (“to come or got out; to emerge”), Proto-Kuki-Chin *tshuak-I, *tshuaʔ-II (“to come out; to emerge; to appear”). The -t final may be particular to Chinese.
Alternatively, Sagart (1999) and Baxter and Sagart (2014) suggest that this word is related to other words that express extraction, such as 掘 (OC *[ɡ]ut, “to dig out”), and reconstruct the Old Chinese with an intransitivizing prefix *t-.

cog

出席

出場／出场

拿出你的身份證／拿出你的身份证

走出香港

Particle placed after verbs to indicate an outward movement.

想不出辦法／想不出办法

睇唔出有咩分别（问题） [Cantonese, simp.]
tai² m⁴ ceot¹ jau⁵ me¹ fan¹ bit⁶ (man⁶ tai⁴) [Jyutping]

sik⁶ m⁴ ceot¹ me¹ mei⁶ dou⁶ [Jyutping]

Particle placed after verbs to indicate a completed action. to determine

錢我𣍐出咧開。

钱我𫧃出咧开。

(Mainland China Hokkien) to be willing to part with money (by spending, paying, etc.)


到

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *taːws): semantic 至 (“to arrive”) + phonetic 刀 (OC *taːw).

Han compound

遘
告
至
甲
各
格
𢓜
佫
徦
假
臵


則

Ideogrammic compound (會意 /会意): 鼎 (“ding, a bronze cauldron for cooking or sacrificial rituals”) + 刂 (“knife”); hence, the original version is 𠟭. Perhaps it's a reference to carving something (e.g., characters) with a knife on a bronze. Its original meaning was "rule; law".
鼎 was simplified to the unrelated 貝 in the small seal script. Compare 貞 (OC *teŋ, “to divine; righteous; firm”) (< 鼑), which underwent the same stylization.

och-l

则
𠞋
𠟔
𠟻
𠟭
则
積

一則寓言

一则寓言

Classifier for news, writings, stories, or narratives: item

conjunction used to indicate cause and effect; so; thus

particle used after numerals to list reasons


加

Shuowen: ideogrammic compound (會意 /会意): 力 (“strength”) + 口 (“mouth”) — exaggerate; slander.
Sun Changxu: ideogrammic compound (會意 /会意): 力 (“plowing”) + 口 (“mouth”) — to put more effort. 口 here indicates exclamations or breath associated with the effort.
駕 (OC *kraːls, “to yoke”) is the exopassive of 加 (OC *kraːl, “to add; to attach”) (Schuessler, 2007). Cognate with Tibetan ཁྲལ (khral, “to impose a tax”), Burmese ကြား (kra:, “between”).

Han compound

美加邊界

美加边界

加國

加国

訪加

访加

Used in transcription.
Short for 加拿大 (Jiānádà, “Canada”).


勒

Alternative form of 嘞 (“modal particle”)


叀

Pictogram (象形) – a spindle. The original form of 專 and 惠.

(obsolete, Classical) meaningless sentence-initial particle


叉

叉雞飯

叉鸡饭

(Cantonese) Short for 叉燒／叉烧 (“char siu”).


叻

Used at the end of a sentence to indicate a change of state.


吓

For pronunciation and definitions of 吓 – see 嚇 (“to frighten; to scare; to be afraid; to be scared; to be frightened; etc.”).
(This character is the simplified form of 嚇).
 Notes:
Simplified Chinese is mainly used in Mainland China, Malaysia, and Singapore.
Traditional Chinese is mainly used in Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan.

zh-see

sentence-final particle used as question tag


吔

particle for surprise, amazement and sigh


吖

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声): semantic 口 (“mouth”) + phonetic 丫.

Han compound

埋嚟睇吓吖。

bat¹ jyu⁴ ngo⁵ dei⁶ gam¹ maan⁵ daa² bin¹ lou⁴ a¹?

不如我哋今晚打邊爐吖？

不如我哋今晚打边炉吖？

Sentence final particle used for making polite requests or suggestions.


否

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *brɯʔ, *pɯʔ): phonetic 不 (OC *pɯ, *pɯʔ, *pɯ', “not”) + semantic 口 (“mouth”). Similar to 咅.
See etymology of 不.

Han compound

Romance of the Three Kingdoms, circa 14ᵗʰ century CE

Yòu yǐn shù bēi, Yǔn zhǐ Chán wèi Bù yuē: “Wú yù jiāng cǐ nǚ sòng yǔ jiāngjūn wéi qiè, hái kěn nà fǒu?”

又飲數杯，允指蟬謂布曰：「吾欲將此女送與將軍為妾，還肯納否？」

又饮数杯，允指蝉谓布曰：「吾欲将此女送与将军为妾，还肯纳否？」


吧

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声 (xíngshēng)): semantic 口 (kǒu) + phonetic 巴 (OC *praː).
From 罷／罢 (bà) and 夫 (OC *ba, “is it not?”), itself a contraction of 不乎.

你有時間再做吧。

你有时间再做吧。

大家去工作吧。

走吧！

Emphatic final particle; used at the end of a sentence to

indicate a suggested action: why don't you ...; let us ...

門還沒鎖吧。

门还没锁吧。

好吧！

算了吧。

Used at the end of a sentence used to concede a point.

不是吧！

Used at the end of a sentence used to indicate disapproving incredulousness.


呀

他是誰呀？

他是谁呀？

See also: 吖

Synonym of 啊 (“Sentence-final exclamation particle”). Normally used after words ending in -a, -o, -e, -i, -ü.


呀

你頭先去咗邊度呀？

你头先去咗边度呀？

Sentence-final particle for softening statements or questions.

Money, phone and computer are all missing.

cin⁴⁻² aa³, sau² gei¹ aa³, din⁶ nou⁵ aa³, dou¹ m⁴ gin³ saai³.

錢呀、手機呀、電腦呀、都唔見嗮。

钱呀、手机呀、电脑呀、都唔见嗮。

Particle used after list items in a list of examples.


呀

原來係佢呀。

原来系佢呀。

Sentence-final particle expressing surprise and suspicion.


呢

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *nil): semantic 口 (“mouth”) + phonetic 尼 (OC *nil)
Ota (1987) suggests that the particle used in questions comes from 聻 (MC nriX) [Five Dynasties], a particle which may come from 爾 (MC nyeX, “that”), and that the particle used to indicate an action in progress comes from earlier 哩 [Yuan dynasty], which may come from 裏 (MC liX, “place”) [Tang dynasty–Five Dynasties].

Han compound

吶
膩
逆
爾
邇
le
年
哖

我們上漢語課呢。

我们上汉语课呢。

present continuous
present continuous#English

Sentence-final particle indicating continuation of an action or state, English present continuous. to be ...-ing


呰

(obsolete) Alternative form of 些 (suò, modal particle)


呵

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *qʰaːl, *qʰaːls): semantic 口 + phonetic 可 (OC *kʰaːlʔ).
Probably related to 呼 (OC *qʰaː, “to exhale, shout”); see there for more (STEDT).

Han compound

Exclamation particle for expressing surprise.


呵

Alternative form of 啊 (exclamation particle)


呵

Silence, silence! Unless we burst in this silence, we shall perish in this silence!

1926, Lu Xun, “In Memory of Miss Liu Hezhen”

Chénmò a, chénmò a! Bù zài chénmò zhōng bàofā, jiù zài chénmò zhōng mièwáng.

沉默呵，沉默呵！不在沉默中爆發，就在沉默中滅亡。

沉默呵，沉默呵！不在沉默中爆发，就在沉默中灭亡。


咁

Alternative form of 敢 (“question particle”)


咋

zh-l

怎麼／怎么 (zěnme)


咋

From z- (“only; just; simply”) + 呀 (aa³). Compare 啫 (ze¹), 咋 (zaa⁴), 之嘛 (zi¹ maa³).

仲有三個咋。

仲有三个咋。

(Cantonese, at the end of a phrase) only; just; simply


咋

From z- (“only; just; simply”) + confirmation-seeking 呀 (aa⁴). Compare 喇 (laa⁴), 㗎 (gaa⁴).

仲有三個咋？

仲有三个咋？

Sentence-final particle used to seek confirmation, expressing surprise and suspicion on a delimitation: only so few/little?


咓

[Oh,] you want to drink milk tea? We can go out to buy some.

nei⁵ soeng² jam² naai⁵ caa⁴ aa⁵? ngo⁵ dei⁶ lok⁶ gaai¹ maai⁵ lo¹.

你想飲奶茶咓？我哋落街買囉。

你想饮奶茶咓？我哋落街买啰。

我唔係最遲嗰個咓？

我唔系最迟嗰个咓？

(Cantonese) Used at the end of a question to make a confirmation.

gaap³: cin⁴ min⁶ zyun³ zo². jyut³: zyun³ jau⁶ aa⁵?

甲：前面轉左。乙：轉右咓？

甲：前面转左。乙：转右咓？

(Cantonese) Used at the end of a question when correcting someone.


咗

zh:彭志銘 zh:曾焯文

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声): semantic 口 (“mouth”) + phonetic 左
First attested in 《散語四十章》 (1877) as 唨. This word replaces earlier 嘵／哓 (hiu¹) in standard Cantonese.
Probably from 著／着 (Cheung, 1997; Chan, 1998; Fan and Chan, 2022); the pronunciation may be due to influence from Mandarin zhuó (Chan, 1998) or colloquial tonal modification to a high-rising tone (Cheung, 1997).
Chan (1995) proposes that the original character is 𧇣 (MC dzuH, “to go”); others (including Jimmy Pang and Chapman Chan) have similarly proposed 徂 (MC dzu, “to go”) to be the original character. These derivations are phonologically and semantically problematic.

Han compound

佢哋啱啱走咗。

My mum made soup yesterday. Now, she has gone grocery shopping in the supermarket.

aa³ maa¹ cam⁴ jat⁶ bou¹ zo² tong¹. keoi⁵ ji⁴ gaa¹ heoi³ zo² ciu¹ kap¹ si⁵ coeng⁴ maai⁵ sung³.

阿媽尋日煲咗湯。佢而家去咗超級市場買餸。

阿妈寻日煲咗汤。佢而家去咗超级市场买𩠌。

食咗就冇 [Cantonese] ― sik⁶ zo² zau⁶ mou⁵ [Jyutping] ― if you eat it there will not be any more

Do you know where he is going? He went out, went out

nei⁵ zi¹ keoi⁵ heoi³ bin¹ syu³ m⁴ ne¹ ceot¹ zo² gaai¹ heoi³ hiu¹ gaai¹

你知佢去邊處唔呢出唨街去嘵街

你知佢去边处唔呢出唨街去哓街

(Cantonese) Used to emphasise an action which has been completed and whose result still applies to the present situation. It roughly translates to the past tense in English.


咧

我咧食飯。

我咧食饭。

(Southern Min) in the process of; currently (placed before the verb)


咩

→ English: meh

There are at least two proposals:
* From 唔 (m4, “not”) + 呢 (ni1, “interrogative particle”) > mi1 > me1 (Yiu, 2021).
* From etymology 2 “what” (Chor and Lam, 2023).

羋
𠴟
哶
嗎
乜
麽
否
𱑿

There's so much homework. Can it be done that quickly?

gam³ do¹ gung¹ fo³, gam³ faai³ zou⁶ dak¹ jyun⁴ me¹?

咁多功課，咁快做得完咩？

咁多功课，咁快做得完咩？

And as touching the dead, that they rise: have ye not read in the book of Moses, how in the bush God spake unto him, saying, I am the God of Abraham, and the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob?

1872, 《馬可傳福音書（廣東土白）》 (The Gospel of Mark: Cantonese Vernacular) 12:26

joek⁶ leon⁶ sei² ze² fuk⁶ sang¹, nei⁵ mei⁶ duk⁶ gwo³ mo¹ sai¹ ging¹ gik¹ pin¹ so² zoi³ me¹, zik¹ hai⁶ zan¹ san⁴ deoi³ mo¹ sai¹ waa⁶, ngo⁵ hai⁶ aa³ baak³ laai¹ hon² ge³ san⁴, ji⁵ saat³ ge³ san⁴, ngaa⁵ gok³ ge³ san⁴.

若論死者復生、你未讀過摩西荆棘篇所載咩、卽係眞神對摩西話、我係亞伯拉罕嘅神、以撒嘅神、雅各嘅神。

若论死者复生、你未读过摩西荆棘篇所载咩、即系真神对摩西话、我系亚伯拉罕嘅神、以撒嘅神、雅各嘅神。

(Cantonese) A sentence-final particle used in yes/no rhetorical questions to express negation.


咯

(chiefly Cantonese) Sentence-final particle indicating that something is obvious.


咱

→ Vietnamese: ta

Fusion of 自家 (MC dzijH kae, “self”) [Song] > Modern Mandarin zá (Lü, 1984). Fusion with 們／们 (men) produces the form with a nasal coda [Yuan], e.g. Modern Mandarin zán (Norman, 1988).

喒
偺
𠴰
倃
俺
㑑
玌
赧

used without 的; GT - General Taiwanese (no specific region identified)

(literary) A particle used after personal pronouns.


咻

1888, T. L. Stedman and K. P. Lee, A Chinese and English Phrase Book in the Canton Dialect

昨日、落咻、一日雨

(Cantonese, archaic) Alternative form of 嘵 /哓 (perfective aspect particle)


咾

* Wu (Shanghai, Wugniu): ⁰lau
* Wu
** (Northern: Shanghai)
*** Wugniu: ⁰lau
*** MiniDict: lau
*** Wiktionary Romanisation (Shanghai): ⁰lau
*** Sinological IPA (Shanghai): /lɔ/

zh-pron

我來咾，當心眼。

我来咾，当心眼。

吃飯咾！／我來咾！

吃饭咾！／我来咾！


哇

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *qreː, *qʷraː): semantic 口 + phonetic 圭 (OC *kʷeː).
Originally, the phonetic component is not related to the concept of earth (土) since in its original form it represents a pair of ritual axes perhaps made of jade 士. Hence, the link to the concept of earth in this character either comes from folk etymology or its appearance in the Small Seal script.

Han compound

好哇！

Sentence-final particle: Equivalent of 啊 (a). Only used after words ending in -u, -ao.


哉

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *ʔslɯː): semantic 口 + phonetic 𢦏 (OC *ʔslɯː).

Han compound

大哉斯言！

"So! indeed!" said Zilu, "You are wide of the mark! Why must there be such rectification?" The Master said, "How uncultivated you are, Zhongyou! A superior man, in regard to what he does not know, shows a cautious reserve."

The Analects of Confucius, c. 475 – 221 BCE, translated based on James Legge's version

Zǐlù yuē: “Yǒu shì zāi, zǐ zhī yū yě! Xī qí zhèng?” Zǐyuē: “Yě zāi Yóu yě! Jūnzǐ yú qí suǒbùzhī, gài quèrú yě.”

子路曰：「有是哉，子之迂也！奚其正？」子曰：「野哉由也！君子於其所不知，蓋闕如也。」

子路曰：「有是哉，子之迂也！奚其正？」子曰：「野哉由也！君子于其所不知，盖阙如也。」

grammatical particle indicating emphasis

sentence-medial particle indicating inverted construction for the emphasis of the predicate

The Master said, "The silent treasuring up of knowledge; learning without satiety; and instructing others without being wearied - which one of these things belongs to me?"

Zǐyuē: “Mò ér zhìzhī, xué ér bùyàn, huìrén bùjuàn, hé yǒuyúwǒ zāi?”

子曰：「默而識之，學而不厭，誨人不倦，何有於我哉？」

子曰：「默而识之，学而不厌，诲人不倦，何有于我哉？」

The Records of the Grand Historian, by Sima Qian, c. 91 BCE

欽念哉！欽念哉！

钦念哉！钦念哉！

sentence-final particle indicating exclamation, emphasis, or strong intention


哉

According to Qian (2010), in contemporary Urban Shanghainese, it has become 了 through lenition (/zəʔ/ > /ləʔ/). Full lenition chain 哉 (MC tsoj) > Suzhounese /t͡se/ > Suburban Shanghainese /tæʔ/, while Old urban Shanghainese/ze/ /zəʔ/ > Contemporary urban Shanghainese/ləʔ/

打勿得哉！

大家來吧，吃飯哉！

大家来吧，吃饭哉！

大煠蟹來垃哉！

大煠蟹来垃哉！

(Northern Wu) Sentence-final particle used to indicate the present tense


哋

Possibly from 等 (“plural particle used after personal pronouns or nouns”).

zh-l

我哋

(Cantonese, Pinghua) Plural marker for pronouns.


哦

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *ŋaːl): semantic 口 (“mouth; speech”) + phonetic 我 (OC *ŋaːlʔ).

Han compound

好好玩，但小心點哦。

好好玩，但小心点哦。

sentence-final particle conveying informality, warmth, friendliness or intimacy

sentence-final particle indicating that one is stating a fact that the other person is not aware of


哦

「幫我熄燈吖。」「哦。」

「帮我熄灯吖。」「哦。」

(Cantonese) Used to express acknowledgement: okay


哩

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声): semantic 口 (“mouth”) + phonetic 里 (OC *rɯʔ)
The Min Nan form is borrowed from English mile.


哪

The current situation is still very grim.

現在形勢還是很嚴峻哪。

现在形势还是很严峻哪。

And looking upon Jesus as he walked, he saith, Behold the Lamb of God!

新標點和合本 (Chinese Union Version with New Punctuation), 約翰福音 (John) 1:36

Tā jiàn Yēsū xíngzǒu, jiù shuō: “Kàn na, zhè shì Shén de gāoyáng!”

他見耶穌行走，就說：「看哪，這是神的羔羊！」

他见耶稣行走，就说：「看哪，这是神的羔羊！」

Sentence-final particle, equivalent to 啊 (a).


唄

A: Why are you wearing school uniform?
B: Err, I'm off to school... (duh!)

Jiǎ: Wèishá nǐ chuān xiàofú?
Yǐ: Qù shàngkè bei.

甲：為啥你穿校服？
乙：去上課唄。

甲：为啥你穿校服？
乙：去上课呗。

(colloquial) Particle indicating obviousness or grudging agreement.


唦

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声): semantic 口 (“mouth”) + phonetic 沙 (OC *sraːl, *sraːls)

1990, 池莉 (Chi Li), 冷也好熱也好活著就好 (Cold or Hot, It's Good to Live)

出麼事了唦？

出么事了唦？


唧

唔好理佢唧。

(Cantonese) Sentence-final particle:
Used to persuade someone.

你想去邊度玩唧？

你想去边度玩唧？

Used to ask or question someone, often in an impatient tone.

zek³ be¹ be¹ hung⁴ hou² dak¹ ji³ gaa³ zek¹!

隻啤啤熊好得意㗎唧！

只啤啤熊好得意㗎唧！

Used in a tender tone to indicate endearment.

Fortunately, there's still twenty dollars in my pocket.

hou² coi² fu³ doi⁶⁻² zung⁶ jau⁵ jaa⁶ man¹ zek¹.

好彩褲袋重有廿蚊唧。

好彩裤袋重有廿蚊唧。

Used to indicate gratefulness, usually used with 好彩.


唯

Sino-Xenic (唯):
* → Vietnamese: duy (唯)

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *ɢʷi, *ɢʷiʔ): semantic 口 (“mouth”) + phonetic 隹.
From Proto-Sino-Tibetan *way (“be, copula, nominalizer, subordinator”); cognate with Proto-Lolo-Burmese *wəy (“to be”) > Proto-Loloish *ʔ-way²/³ (> Luquan ve³³ ~ ve⁵⁵ ("subordinator, final particle"), Lahu ve (“nominalizer; relativizer; genitivizer”), Akha ø ~ ø̀ (“subordinator; citation-form marker; terminator of utterances in declarative mood”)), Mizo ve (“also, too, as well”), Jingpho we (“present tense particle”), and possibly Tibetan ཡིན (yin, “to be”) < *wi-n (with earlier w- disappearing before -i).(STEDT; Schuessler, 2007).
Related to 惠 (OC *ɢʷiːds) (Schuessler, 2007)

cog

維天有漢。

维天有汉。

In the ninth month, the King was in Zongzhou, and ordered this vessel.

Wéi jiǔ yuè, wáng zài zōng zhōu, mìng yú.

唯九月，王在宗周，命盂。

(alt. form 維／维, 惟) An introductory particle marking noun phrases as the topic


啊

→ English: ah (Singapore, Malaysia)

揀啊揀，揀著一個賣龍眼 / 揀啊揀，揀著一个賣龍眼 / 拣啊拣，拣着一个卖龙眼

kéng--ah kéng, kéng-tio̍h chi̍t ê bē lêng-géng


啝

bei² ngo⁵ zap¹ dou³⁻² zoeng¹ sap⁶ man¹ zi² wo⁴.

畀我執到張十蚊紙啝。

畀我执到张十蚊纸啝。

(Cantonese) Sentence-final particle expressing surprise.


啦

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声): semantic 口 (“mouth”) + phonetic 拉.

Han compound

(Mandarin, colloquial) Contraction of 了啊 (le a).

Used at the end of a sentence to indicate a change of state with a strong emotion.


啩

Fusion of 估 (gu2, “to guess”) and 啊 (aa3, “sentence final particle”) (Chao, 1947). This is supported by attestation of the unfused version in Early Cantonese

I think you will rather prefer some cake, will you not?

1841, Elijah Coleman Bridgman, A Chinese Chrestomathy in the Canton Dialect

ngo⁵ tai² dak¹ nei⁵ zung¹ ji³ min⁶ beng² gu² aa³

我睇得你中意麵餅估呀

我睇得你中意面饼估呀

I'm going to go home and eat noodles, I guess.

我返屋企食麵啩。

我返屋企食面啩。

1899, 馬可福音：中西字 [The Gospel according to St. Mark in English and Cantonese], Shanghai: American Presbyterian Mission Press, page 36:

And they reasoned among themselves, saying, It is because we have no bread.

mun⁴ sang¹ bei² ci² ji⁵ leon⁶ waa⁶, hai⁶ jan¹ ngo⁵ dei⁶ mou⁵ beng² gwaa³.

門生彼此議論話、係因我哋冇餅啩。

门生彼此议论话、系因我哋冇饼啩。

(Cantonese) Sentence final particle indicating uncertainty in a statement; implies that the speaker is not sure whether what he/she says is true.


啫

You don't have a girlfriend? Of course I don't believe you! ... Maybe you do have one, but you just don't know it.

nei⁵ mou⁵ neoi⁵ pang⁴ jau⁵? gang² hai⁶ m⁴ seon³ laa¹!...... waak⁶ ze² jau⁵. nei⁵ m⁴ zi¹ ze¹.

你冇女朋友？梗係唔信啦！……或者有。你唔知啫。

你冇女朋友？梗系唔信啦！……或者有。你唔知啫。

(Cantonese) sentence final particle: only; just; simply; merely


啲

D
d
o的
的
尐
滴

And when the disciples saw him walking on the sea, they were troubled, saying, It is a spirit; and they cried out for fear.

現代台語譯本 (Today's Taiwanese Version), 馬太福音 (Matthew) 14:26

Bûn-tô͘ khòaⁿ-tio̍h I tī ô͘ ê téng-bīn teh kiâⁿ, chin tio̍h-kiaⁿ, kóng: “Sī kúi!” In kiaⁿ-kah tōa-siaⁿ hoah chhut-lâi.

門徒看著伊佇湖的頂面啲行，真著驚，講：「是鬼！」𪜶驚甲大聲喝出來。

门徒看着伊伫湖的顶面啲行，真着惊，讲：「是鬼！」𪜶惊甲大声喝出来。


啵

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声): semantic 口 (“mouth”) + phonetic 波 (OC *paːl)

You always have good ideas. Try and think of a strategy for us, won't you?

Nǐ de qiàomén duō, gěi zánmen xiǎng ge bànfǎ, xíng bo?

你的竅門多，給咱們想個辦法，行啵？

你的窍门多，给咱们想个办法，行啵？

(dialectal) A particle denoting consultation, suggestion, request, command, etc.


喃

(Southwestern Mandarin) Interrogative particle, equivalent to 呢 (ne) in Standard Chinese.


喇

He has become a university student / He is a university student now.

佢係大學生喇。

佢系大学生喇。

Used at the end of a sentence to indicate a change of state.


喎

記住帶多件褸喎。

记住带多件褛㖞。

You've got to brush your teeth before bed.

lam⁴ fan³ cin⁴ jiu³ caat³ ngaa⁴ gaa³ wo³.

臨瞓前要刷牙㗎喎。

临𰥛前要刷牙㗎㖞。

ngo⁵ ji⁵ ging¹ sik⁶ zo² faan⁶ gaa³ laa³ wo³.

我已經食咗飯㗎喇喎。

我已经食咗饭㗎喇㖞。

(Cantonese) Sentence-final modal particle used as a casual reminder or for emphasis.

(Cantonese) Sentence-final modal particle used to express realization.

冇想像中咁差喎。

冇想像中咁差㖞。

ni¹ bun² syu¹ hai⁶ mai⁶ nei⁵ gaa³?
m⁴ hai⁶ ngo⁵ gaa³ wo³.

呢本書係咪你㗎？
唔係我㗎喎。

呢本书系咪你㗎？
唔系我㗎㖞。

When will he arrive? We'll start the meal once he's here.
 Huh? He's not coming today.

keoi⁵ gei² si⁴ dou³? ngo⁵ dei⁶ dang² maai⁴ keoi⁵ zau⁶ hoi¹ faan⁶.
haa², keoi⁵ gam¹ jat⁶ m⁴ lei⁴ wo³.

佢幾時到？我哋等埋佢就開飯。
吓，佢今日唔嚟喎。

佢几时到？我哋等埋佢就开饭。
吓，佢今日唔嚟㖞。

(Cantonese) Sentence-final modal particle used to emphasises truth that contradicts an incorrect assumption.

多謝喎／多谢㖞 [Cantonese] ― do¹ ze⁶ wo³ [Jyutping] ― thanks a lot

(Cantonese) Sentence-final modal particle used to express sarcasm.


喎

lou⁵ si¹ giu³ ngo⁵ dei⁶ heoi³ sik⁶ faan⁶ sin¹ wo⁵.

老師叫我哋去食飯先喎。

老师叫我哋去食饭先㖞。

(Someone said) Set up three more tables.

開多三張檯喎。

开多三张台㖞。

(Cantonese) Sentence-final modal particle used for reported speech.


喔

(Taiwanese Hokkien) Emphatic final particle used to make requests


嗄

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *sqʰraːs, *qraːds): semantic 口 (“mouth”) + phonetic 夏 (OC *ɡraːʔ, *ɡraːs).

Han compound

sentence-final particle and interjection expressing surprise


嗎

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声): semantic 口 (“mouth”) + phonetic 馬 (OC *mraːʔ).
From 無 (OC *ma, “not”) (Schuessler, 2007).
For Philippine Hokkien 嗎 /吗 (--ba), it is borrowed from Tagalog ba (interrogative particle).

你喜歡嗎？

你喜欢吗？

你好嗎？

你好吗？

Final interrogative particle, forming yes/no questions.


嗒

(Cantonese) to taste food by holding in the mouth


嗬

Possibly from the fusion of 係／系 (hai6, “to be, yes”) + 哦 (o2, “interjection/particle expressing doubt or uncertainty”) (Chor et al., 2016).

zh-l

You're attending the party this evening, right?

nei⁵ gam¹ maan⁵ wui⁵ ceot¹ zik⁶ go³ maan⁵ wui⁶⁻² gaa³ ho²?

你今晚會出席個晚會㗎嗬？

你今晚会出席个晚会㗎嗬？

(Cantonese) Sentence-final particle used in an interrogative seeking confirmation.


嗮

Uncertain. Chan (1995) suggests that it is from 澌 (MC sjeH, “to dry up; to finish”).

(Nanning Cantonese) Verbal aspect marker for completion of an action (perfective).

矣1

verbal aspect marker for completion of an action


嘅

噶
嘎
既
o既
ge
個

may use corresponding classifier in certain contexts

佢哋嘅

You've got to like listening to this song.

nei¹ sau² go¹ jat¹ ding⁶ ngaam¹ nei⁵ teng¹ ge³.

呢首歌一定啱你聽嘅。

呢首歌一定啱你听嘅。

Used at the end of a declarative sentence for emphasis.

If you want to have sweet soup, we can go out and buy some.

nei⁵ soeng² sik⁶ tong⁴ seoi² ge³, ho² ji⁵ lok⁶ gaai¹ maai⁵.

你想食糖水嘅，可以落街買。

你想食糖水嘅，可以落街买。

Used at the end of a conditional clause.


嘅

噶
嘎
既
o既
ge
個

gin⁶ saam¹ jau⁶ zan¹ hai⁶ gei² leng³ ge².

件衫又真係幾靚嘅。

件衫又真系几靓嘅。

Used at the end of a sentence to show
Agreement or confirmation.

點解會噉嘅？

点解会噉嘅？

Used at the end of a sentence to show
Doubt or surprise.


嘍

Nǐmen shōushi shōushi, zhǔnbèi chīfàn lou.

你們收拾收拾，準備吃飯嘍。

你们收拾收拾，准备吃饭喽。

Alternative pronunciation of the particle 了.


嘑

For pronunciation and definitions of 嘑 – see 滹.
(This character is a variant form of 滹).

zh-see

(Cantonese) Alternative form of 喇 (laa3, “(sentence-final particle)”)


嘛

→ English: mah

別著急嘛。

别着急嘛。

Used at the end of an imperative or request to express expectation or dissuasion.


嘞

(Cantonese) final particle used for polite refusal

係嘞。

系嘞。

(Cantonese) Used at the end of a sentence for confirmation.


嘵

From 休 (MC xjuw, “to rest; to stop”) (Kwok and Kataoka, 2006; Gan and Zhao, 2013).

He then touched her with his hands, and her back grew straight, and she began to praise God.

1864, William Lobscheid, Select Phrases and Reading Lessons in the Canton Dialect, pages 66–67

gam² zau⁶ bei² sau² mo² haa⁵ keoi⁵ bui³ zek³ go³ neoi⁵ jan⁴⁻² ge³ jiu¹ gwat¹ zau⁶ zik⁶ hiu¹ zik¹ si⁴ do¹ ze⁶ soeng⁶ dai³

噉就俾手摸吓佢背脊個女人嘅腰骨就直嘵卽時多謝上帝

噉就俾手摸吓佢背脊个女人嘅腰骨就直哓即时多谢上帝

Do you know where he is going? He went out, went out

nei⁵ zi¹ keoi⁵ heoi³ bin¹ syu³ m⁴ ne¹ ceot¹ zo² gaai¹ heoi³ hiu¹ gaai¹

你知佢去邊處唔呢出唨街去嘵街

你知佢去边处唔呢出唨街去哓街

唔見嘵咯

唔见哓咯

And they [the husbandmen] took him, and beat him, and sent him away empty.

1927, 《新約全書中西字：廣東話新譯本、美國新譯英文》, 馬可 (Mark) 12:3

nung⁴ fu¹ zap¹ zyu⁶ keoi⁵ loi⁴ daa², ling⁶ keoi⁵ hung¹ sau² heoi³ hiu¹.

農夫執住佢來打、令佢空手去嘵。

农夫执住佢来打、令佢空手去哓。

1931, Albert Andrew Fulton, Progressive and Idiomatic Sentences in Cantonese Colloquial

go³ zek³ gau² zau² hiu¹ jap⁶ cyu⁴ fong⁴⁻²

個隻狗走嘵入廚房

个只狗走哓入厨房

(Cantonese, dated or dialectal) Perfective aspect particle.


噃

(Cantonese) Final particle used to assert something.


噉

噉我返去先啦。


嚊

1841, Elijah Coleman Bridgman, A Chinese Chrestomathy in the Canton Dialect, page 82:

Ah truly, it is delightful to dwell in calm retirement!

好唎，享淸福⿰口理嚊！

好唎，享清福⿰口理嚊！

1866, 花波 [Mary Lucy French], transl., 《述史淺譯》 [Bible History for the Least and the Lowest], volume 4, 雙門底福音堂, page 87:

Jesus answered, "Some body has touched me, for I feel that virtue is gone out of me."

je⁴ sou¹ waa⁶, zan¹ hai⁶ jau⁵ jan⁴ mo¹ ngo⁵ aa³, gin³ ngo⁵ zi⁶ gei² san¹ soeng⁶ jau⁵ ji⁶ nang⁴ hin² ceot¹ be⁶.

耶穌話、眞係有人摩我呀、見我自己身上有異能顯出嚊。

耶稣话、真系有人摩我呀、见我自己身上有异能显出嚊。

1992, 《逃學威龍2》 [Fight Back to School II], spoken by 何老師之母 [Mother of Miss Ho] (譚倩紅 [Sin-hung Tam]):

mou⁵ faat³ laa¹, go³ neoi⁵⁻² ci⁵ ngo⁵ be⁶.

冇法啦，個女似我嚊。

冇法啦，个女似我嚊。

(Cantonese, dated) Sentence-final particle indicating doubt or dissatisfaction.


嚕

終於做完嚕！

终于做完噜！

(Cantonese) Used at the end of a sentence to indicate relief due to change of state.

As (I) kept on spending money, it was quick before it has all been used up!

di¹ cin⁴⁻² jung⁶ haa⁵ jung⁶ haa⁵, waa⁶ gam³ faai³ zau⁶ jung⁶ saai³ lu³.

啲錢用下用下，話咁快就用嗮嚕。

啲钱用下用下，话咁快就用嗮噜。

(Cantonese) Used at the end of a sentence to indicate disappointment due to change of state.


嚟

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声): semantic 口 (“mouth”) + phonetic 黎 (lai4)
Vernacular reading of 來 /来.

Han compound

我想嚟探你。


嚫

Every time I call him, he doesn't pick up the phone.

daa² can¹ bei² keoi⁵ dou¹ m⁴ zip³ din⁶ waa⁶⁻².

打嚫畀佢都唔接電話。

打𰈍畀佢都唔接电话。

見嚫都係男人著。

见𰈍都系男人着。

Ming causes problems every time he get his hands on alcohol.

aa³ ming⁴ ci³ ci³ jam² can¹ zau² dou¹ wui⁵ ceot¹ si⁶.

阿明次次飲嚫酒都會出事。

阿明次次饮𰈍酒都会出事。

Used after a verb and with 都 to indicate every time the action occurs.


嚹

(Cantonese) a particle implying completion, certainty or urgency


囉

→ English: lor

啰
罗
啰
lor
啰
𦣇
籮
啰
啰
咯
嘍
嘮
勞
哪

啲車行得勁快囉。

啲车行得劲快啰。

Statement-final particle used to express impatience or vexation.

唉我唔知點算好囉。

唉我唔知点算好啰。

Statement-final particle used to invite agreement or sympathy.


囉

啰
罗
啰
lor
啰
𦣇
籮
啰
啰
咯
嘍
嘮
勞
哪

2007, 石凱婷 [Hoi Ting Shek], 《溏心風暴》 [Heart of Greed], episode 9, spoken by 唐至安 [Tong Chi-on] (陳豪 [Moses Chan]):

努力，挺胸、扭囉

努力，挺胸、扭啰

(Cantonese) buttocks (Classifier: 個／个 c)


囉

啰
罗
啰
lor
啰
𦣇
籮
啰
啰
咯
嘍
嘮
勞
哪

我食囉。

我食啰。

時代變囉。

时代变啰。

The clothes have dried enough now, one should quickly put it away.

Saⁿ-khò͘ pha̍k kā chin ta--lo͘, tio̍h kín siu khí lâi ah.

衫褲曝共真焦囉，著緊收起來啊。

衫裤曝共真焦啰，著紧收起来啊。

You should stop quarrelling with him already.

汝著毋通佮伊冤家囉。

汝著毋通佮伊冤家啰。

(Hokkien) already; now (final perfective particle expressing completion)


地

Possibly the same word as 的, the possessive marker (Wang, 1958), but scholars like Lü (1943) and Yuan et al. (1996) are hesitant about this etymology.
Alternatively, Ōta (2003) proposes that it is a grammaticalization of etymology 1. The construction ADJ + 地 would have semantically developed as follows: "a ADJ place" → "in a ADJ place" → "in a ADJ manner".

坔
埅
埊
𡍑
𨹛
𨻐
墬
𡏇
𠏂
𡑸
𡒿
𡒴
𡒰
𡓬
嶳
𪒉
𤅴
哋

alt. forms: 的, 底 obsolete

很快地

A roughly one-year-old child came staggering towards us.

Yīge yī suì móyàng de háizi xiàng wǒmen pánshān de zǒulái.

一個一歲模樣的孩子向我們蹣跚地走來。

一个一岁模样的孩子向我们蹒跚地走来。

佢偷偷地走咗喇。

nei⁵ zing⁶ zing⁶⁻² dei⁶⁻² co⁵ hai² dou⁶ laa³ haa².

你靜靜地坐喺度喇吓。

你静静地坐喺度喇吓。

Only a government based on democratic centralism can fully express the will of all the revolutionary people and fight the enemies of the revolution most effectively.

1940, 毛澤東 (Mao Zedong), 《新民主主義論》 (On New Democracy), 《毛澤東選集》. English translation based on the Foreign Languages Press edition

Zhīyǒu mínzhǔjízhōngzhì de zhèngfǔ, cái néng chōngfēn de fāhuī yīqiè gémìng rénmín de yìzhì, yě cái néng zuì yǒu lìliàng de qù fǎnduì gémìng de dírén.

隻有民主集中制的政府，才能充分地發揮一切革命人民的意志，也才能最有力量地去反對革命的敵人。

只有民主集中制的政府，才能充分地发挥一切革命人民的意志，也才能最有力量地去反对革命的敌人。

(chiefly Mandarin) Particle indicating the preceding word is used as an adverb.


埋

Possibly from 摩 (OC *maːl, “to approach; to touch; to draw near”); cognate with Teochew 磨 (bhua5, “to approach”) (Yan et al., 2016).

痴痴呆呆，坐埋一枱

ci1 ci1 ngoi4 ngoi4, co5 maai4 jat1 toi4

坐埋一齊／坐埋一齐 [Cantonese] ― co⁵ maai⁴ jat¹ cai⁴ [Jyutping] ― to sit together

将甲同乙挤埋一齐 [Cantonese, simp.]
zoeng¹ gaap³ tung⁴ jyut³ zai¹ maai⁴ jat¹ cai⁴ [Jyutping]

to put A and B next to each other; to place A and B together

黐埋一齊／黐埋一齐 [Cantonese] ― ci¹ maai⁴ jat¹ cai⁴ [Jyutping] ― to stick together

將啲材料撈埋。

将啲材料捞埋。

埋尾

to pay the bill (lit. to close off the bill)

埋單

埋单


夫

“That”. Schuessler (2007) connects this with Proto-Loloish *m-ba (“on the other side”), Tibetan ཕ (pha, “beyond, farther on, onward”). Maybe related to 彼 (OC *pralʔ, “that”). Pulleyblank (1995) relates the introductory particle sense with 凡 (OC *bom).
In the sense "is it not?", probably a contraction of 不 (OC *pɯ, *pɯʔ, *pɯ') and 乎 (OC *ɢaː) (Pulleyblank, 1995, p. 145).

cog

夫將者，國之輔也。

夫将者，国之辅也。

Sentence-initial particle which introduces a topic.


孛

Ideogrammic compound (會意 /会意): 𣎵 (“growth”) + 子 (“child”) – growing; vibrant; spirited. Original form of 勃 (OC *bɯːd, “exuberant”).

Han compound

Simplified Chinese is mainly used in Mainland China

Traditional Chinese is mainly used in Hong Kong


完

→ Vietnamese: vẹn

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *ɦŋoːn): semantic 宀 (“roof”) + phonetic 元 (OC *ŋon).

Han compound

perfective aspect
perfective aspect#English

Used after a verb to indicate perfective aspect (action completion).

信紙用完了

信纸用完了

to fail; to enter a dangerous or hopeless state; to be doomed; done for


定

→ Thai: เที่ยง (tîiang)

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *teːŋs, *deːŋs): semantic 宀 + phonetic 正 (OC *tjeŋ, *tjeŋs)
Possibly related to Burmese တည် (tany, “to lie in repose; to build, form, establish”) (Luce, 1981).

cog

(～母) (Chinese linguistics) the Middle Chinese initial of 定 (MC dengH)


將

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *ʔsaŋ, *ʔsaŋs): phonetic 爿 (OC *braːn, *zaŋ, “bed; small table”) + semantic ⺼ (“meat”) + semantic 寸 (“hand”) – to offer meat as tribute. Besides pronunciation, 爿 may partly indicate a small cutting board and/or sacrifical table on which the meat is placed. The sacrifical meat and the hand together form the shape 𪧷, which is similar but unrelated to 有.
The ⺼ component is on its side, hence resembles 夕 with an added dot; compare 祭, 然.
Shuowen erroneously considers the phonetic component of 將 to be 醬 (OC *ʔsaŋs, “sauce”) (abbreviated).
A conflation of two roots: “to take; to hold” and “will; be going to; near”.
; “to take; to hold” (Pronunciations 1, 2 and 3)
; “will; be going to; near” (Pronunciation 1)
; anteposed object introductory particle

Han compound

走將出來

走将出来

唱將起來

唱将起来

As soon as the emperor ascended onto his throne, a gust of wind suddenly arose out of the corner of the hall. A big green snake was spotted which flew down from the rafters and coiled up on the seat.

c. 1330 - 1400: Luo Guanzhong, Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Chapter 1 (三國演義/第001回)

Fāng shēng zuò, diàn jiǎo kuángfēng zhòu qǐ. Zhǐ jiàn yī tiáo dà qīng shé, cóng liáng shàng fēi jiāng xiàlái, pán yú yǐ shàng.

方陞座，殿角狂風驟起。只見一條大青蛇，從梁上飛將下來，蟠於椅上。

方升座，殿角狂风骤起。只见一条大青蛇，从梁上飞将下来，蟠于椅上。

(obsolete or dialectal) Particle placed after the verb and before a resultative phrase (進來, 起來, 進去 etc.).

(Hong Kong) Short for 將軍澳／将军澳 (Jiāngjūn'ào, “Tseung Kwan O”).


將

(figurative) dab hand (at something); capable person


屁

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *pʰis): semantic 尸 (“body”) + phonetic 比 (OC *piʔ, *pis, *bi, *bis, *biɡ).
From Proto-Sino-Tibetan *pja-n/t/s (“fart; shit”). Cognate with Tibetan ཕྱེན (phyen), འཕྱེན ('phyen, “flatulence”), Jingpho hpyet (“to fart”).

inh

放屁

(colloquial) flatulence; fart (Classifier: 篤／笃 c)


居

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *kɯ, *kas): semantic 尸 + phonetic 古 (OC *kaːʔ).


度

度度 [Cantonese] ― dou⁶ dou⁶ [Jyutping] ― everywhere

呢幾度／呢几度 [Cantonese] ― ni¹ gei² dou⁶ [Jyutping] ― these places

我兩度都去過。

我两度都去过。

Can it be that I left the key in the car?

m⁴ tung¹ ngo⁵ lau⁴ zo² tiu⁴ so² si⁴ hai² gaa³ ce¹ dou⁶?

唔通我留咗條鎖匙喺架車度？

唔通我留咗条锁匙喺架车度？

行埋佢度 [Cantonese] ― haang⁴ maai⁴ keoi⁵ dou⁶ [Jyutping] ― walk near to him/her


得

Ideogrammic compound (會意 /会意). The ancient form of 得 is 㝵, composed of 貝 (“cowry”) + 又 (“hand”) — to pick up a cowry > to obtain valuables. A component 彳 was sometimes added to show that the cowry was picked up on the road.
In the Qin Bamboo and Slip script:
* a horizontal line was added to the 又, which means it is replaced with the related 寸. This is a feature of Qin script, and many characters that used to compound with 又 now compound with 寸.
In the Shuowen seal script:
* the 貝 corrupts into something resembling 見. However, this should be an error of Shuowen because it can only be only found in Shuowen and not in historical Qin Seal script, Qin Bamboo, and Slip script.
In the clerical script:
* the 貝 is simplified as 目 (“eye”); such simplification can be seen in its early form in Spring and Autumn and Warring States bronze inscriptions, Chu Bamboo, and Silk script, as well as other characters such as 具. Then it corrupts into 旦 (“dawn”) in later clerical script, and Regular script inherited it.
Pulleyblank (1991) relates it to Tibetan ཐུབ (thub, “to be able to; to withstand”).

cog

㝵
淂
𠭁
𧴫
䙷
㝶
𮙮

得了，別再說了。

得了，别再说了。

得喇，知道喇。

I've got a niece who's 26 years old this year, who's already dated several guys but none worked out. Her mum's been nagging me to find a guy for her. Alright, we'll set the two up then. There's no need to find someone else.

Wǒ yǒu ge biǎozhínür, jīnnián èrshíliù, tán le hǎo jǐ ge duìxiàng le dōu méi tán chéng. Tā mā a, yīzhí tuō wǒ bāngmáng ne. Dé, béng biérén le, jiù shi tā le.

我有個表姪女兒，今年二十六，談了好幾個對象了都沒談成。她媽啊，一直託我幫忙呢。得，甭別人了，就是她了。

我有个表侄女儿，今年二十六，谈了好几个对象了都没谈成。她妈啊，一直托我帮忙呢。得，甭别人了，就是她了。

interjective particle expressing approval or prohibition; see 得了

interjective particle expressing frustration or helplessness


得

㝵
淂
𠭁
𧴫
䙷
㝶
𮙮

佢好食得。

呢本書都幾賣得。

呢本书都几卖得。

There's no one who could be worse than him.

冇邊個衰得過佢。

冇边个衰得过佢。

(Cantonese) Used after a verb to form an adjectival phrase expressing capability.


得

㝵
淂
𠭁
𧴫
䙷
㝶
𮙮

𣍐堪得／𫧃堪得 [Hokkien] ― bōe-kham-tit [Pe̍h-ōe-jī] ― to be unable to stand or endure or bear something

(Hokkien) placed after a verb with 會 or 𣍐 before the verb to express possibility or ability


思

Original form was 恖 (OC *snɯ), considered by Shuowen to be a phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *snɯ, *snɯs): phonetic 囟 (OC *snɯns) + semantic 心 (“heart”). It may also be a ideogrammic compound (會意 /会意): 囟 (“fontanel”) + 心 (“heart”).
囟 started to corrupt into the unrelated 田 as early as the silk script.

Han compound

(obsolete) sentence-final interjectional particle


惹

2017, 貓邏, chapter 7, in 蜂舞, volume 9, Taichung: 飛燕文創, →ISBN:

“It’s so noisy! Where did this idiot come from? It’s loud enough to disturb my sleep!” A soft and tender voice interrupted Sikong Long’s speech.

“Chǎo sǐ re! Nǎlǐ lái de chǔnhuò? Chǎo dào běn lóng shuìjiào re!” Nènshēngnènqì de màshēng chuánchū, dǎduànle Sīkōnglóng de hǎnhuà.

「吵死惹！哪裡來的蠢貨？吵到本龍睡覺惹！」嫩聲嫩氣的罵聲傳出，打斷了司空龍的喊話。

「吵死惹！哪里来的蠢货？吵到本龙睡觉惹！」嫩声嫩气的骂声传出，打断了司空龙的喊话。

2022 August 10, 奶粉七号, Bilibili, archived from the original on 2024-12-24:

During a firefighter’s live broadcast, the comment section was flooded with lust and full of horny screams

lánpéngyou zhíbō, pínglùnqū fā dàshuǐ re, quán shì jījiàoshēng

蓝朋友直播，评论区发大水惹，全是鸡叫声

藍朋友直播，評論區發大水惹，全是雞叫聲

2024, 周侠 [Xia Zhou], quoting 北京语言大学语料库中心 [BLCU Corpus Center], “互动语言学视角下网络新兴语气词“惹”的研究 [An Interactive Linguistic Perspective on the Emerging Tone of Voice on the Internet: A Study of “re”]”, in 现代语言学 [Modern Linguistics], volume 12, number 11, →DOI, page 177:

你们俩都太可爱惹！！！

你們倆都太可愛惹！！！

(Mandarin, Internet slang, usually women's speech, LGBTQ slang) Alternative form of 了, conveying the speaker’s emotions such as cuteness, coquettishness, playfulness, cheerfulness, or mildness

usually women's speech; LGBTQ slang; usually women's speech; LGBTQ slang


或

CJKV/code

Sino-Xenic (或):
* → Vietnamese: hoặc (或)

Characters in the same phonetic series (或) (Zhengzhang, 2003)
Ideogrammic compound (會意 /会意): 戈 (“dagger-axe (used to defend the territory)”) + 囗 (“city wall”) + 一, “territory”. The most ancient version is 戓, then modified into 或; the stroke was added perhaps when the pronunciation of the character evolved.
Borrowed for abstract meanings. The derivative 國 (OC *kʷɯːɡ), 域 (OC *ɢʷrɯɡ), and perhaps 淢 refer to the original word. The last character can be seen in the ancient name of the Han river, 㵄.
或 (OC *ɡʷɯːɡ, “someone; some”) is the result of the distributive suffix *-k being added to 有 (OC *ɢʷɯʔ, “there is”).
Cognate with 又 (OC *ɢʷɯs, “again”) (Schuessler, 2007).

Han compound

particle used in negative sentences to reinforce the negative tone


打

desc

→ Korean: 치다 (chida, “to call (on the telephone)”) (semantic loan)

→ Zhuang: daj

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *rteŋʔ, *teːŋʔ): semantic 扌 (“hand”) + phonetic 丁 (OC *rteːŋ, *teːŋ).
This post-classical word (its earliest extant attestation is in Shuowen) was pronounced *teŋ in Late Old Chinese, as would be expected from a 丁 phonetic. By the early Ming period, the character had been borrowed (訓讀／训读) for another word (撻) with the same meaning ("to flog, to beat") but a different pronunciation (whence Mandarin tà), without the nasal ending. This may be related to the previous reading, as a dialectal variant. In Mandarin and some other varieties, the new reading became standard; however, derivations of the older pronunciation are still used in other varieties such as Wu and Min Nan, as well as Vietnamese (đánh).
It has been compared to Mizo dêng (“to throw; to fling; to hammer”) and proposed to be from Sino-Tibetan (Schuessler, 2007). Also compare Proto-Mon-Khmer *dah ~ daʔ (“to hit, to meet”), whence Mon ဒး (tɛ̀h, “to hit (a mark), meet with, reach [goal], be correct, apposite, to fit”) and Khmer ទះ (tĕəh, “to slap, to strike”).
The pronunciation da is recorded in 六書故 as 都假切.

cog

to hit (a mark), meet with, reach 􂀿goal􂁀, be correct, apposite, to fit

他挨了一頓打。

他挨了一顿打。

打麻雀 [Cantonese] ― daa² maa⁴ zoek³⁻² [Jyutping] ― to play mahjong

打撲克／打扑克 [dialectal Mandarin] ― dǎ púkèr [Pinyin] ― to play poker

打牌

Used as a dummy verb to make a verbal phrase from a noun, including but not limited to:

(opera) A particle used between reduplicated syllables.


抑

Pictogram (象形): A hand suppressing a kneeling person. For contrast, see 印 (yìn).


捏

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *niːɡ): semantic 扌 (“hand”) + abbreviated phonetic 涅 (OC *niːɡ).


撇

電腦壞撇了。

电脑坏撇了。

(Hakka) Normally followed by 了 to mark a state change.


撚

(music) to press on or lightly pinch in the strings of the pipa to produce a wave-like effect


敲

From 休 (MC xjuw, “to rest; to stop”) (Kwok and Kataoka, 2006). Compare Guangzhou 嘵／哓 (hiu1), which has become obsolete.

2021 October 21, 澳門畢家四姐妹 [Pedruco Sisters], 【呢啲係咩方言?!】教你講正宗澳門土生「葡式中文」 [ITS NOT CHINESE! LEARN MACANESE PHRASES], spoken by 畢美淇 [Guiomar Pedruco]:

Because we used the Portuguese pronunciation

jan¹ wai⁶ ngo⁵ dei⁶ hai⁶ jung⁶ hau¹ pou⁴ man⁴⁻² jam¹

因為我哋係用敲葡文音

因为我哋系用敲葡文音

(Macau and Dongguan Cantonese) Used after a verb to indicate perfective aspect (action completion).


斯

A sieve next to an axe; its original meaning was "to divide/break with an axe" and, according to Xu Shen, it was synonym of 析. The original meaning is still preserved in the character 撕.
Cognate with 此 (OC *sʰeʔ, “this”) (Schuessler, 2007).
STEDT compares 此 (OC *sʰeʔ) and 斯 (OC *se) to Proto-Tani *si (“this”).

生於斯，長於斯

生于斯，长于斯

It is killing him. It is the appointment of Heaven, alas! That such a man should have such a sickness! That such a man should have such a sickness!

The Analects of Confucius, c. 475 – 221 BCE, translated based on James Legge's version

Wáng zhī, mìng yǐ fū! Sī rén yě ér yǒu sī jí yě! Sī rén yě ér yǒu sī jí yě!

亡之，命矣夫！斯人也而有斯疾也！斯人也而有斯疾也！

(Mainland China) Short for 斯大林 (Sīdàlín, “Stalin”).

Used in transcription.
Short for 斯大林 (Sīdàlín, “Stalin”).


末

Ideogram (指事): a tree (木) with its top highlighted with an extra stroke, implying the meaning of “apex”; contrast 本, 朱.

粉末


格

Characters in the same phonetic series (各) (Zhengzhang, 2003)
Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *klaːɡ, *kraːɡ): semantic 木 (“wood”) + phonetic 各 (OC *klaːɡ).
; “to go; to come; to arrive”
: Baxter (1992) proposes that this is related to 路 (OC *ɡ·raːɡs, “road”). Compare 客 (OC *kʰraːɡ, “guest, visitor”), 旅 (OC *ɡ·raʔ, “travel, lodge”), and 行 (OC *ɡaːŋ, *ɡaːŋs, *ɡraːŋ, *ɡraːŋs, “to go”)
; “to obstruct; to hinder”
; “frame; square”
; “style; form; pattern; standard; personality; character”

och-l

The Di said, "Come, you Shun. I have consulted you on affairs, and examined your words, and found that they can be carried into practice."

The Book of Documents, circa 4ᵗʰ – 3ʳᵈ century BCE, translated based on James Legge's version

Dì yuē: “Gé, rǔ Shùn. Xún shì kǎo yán, nǎi yán zhǐ kě jì.”

帝曰：「格，汝舜。詢事考言，乃言厎可績。」

帝曰：「格，汝舜。询事考言，乃言厎可绩。」

On the first day of the first month, Shun went to (the temple of) the Accomplished Ancestor.

月正元日，舜格于文祖。


欸

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *qɯː, *qʰrɯːs): phonetic 矣 (OC *ɢlɯʔ) + semantic 欠 (“breath”).

Han compound

Only used in 欸乃 (ǎinǎi, “an onomatopoeia”).


歟

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *la, *laʔ, *las): phonetic 與 (OC *la, *laʔ, *las) + semantic 欠.
; question particle

Han compound

1046 October 17, 范仲淹 [Fan Zhongyan], 岳陽樓記 [Memorial to Yueyang Tower]:

Sentence-final particle used to express an exclamatory, doubtful or questioning tone


殹

A particle used in the middle or at the end of sentences. Similar to 也 (yě) and 兮 (xī).


添

→ Vietnamese: thêm

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *tʰiːm): semantic 水 (“water”) + phonetic 忝 (OC *l̥ʰiːmʔ, *l̥ʰiːms) – to increase by pouring more water in.
Compare Proto-Tai *k.temᴬ (“full”), whence Thai เต็ม (dtem, “full”) (Manomaivibool, 1975).

Han compound

我橫掂都添去。

我横掂都添去。

(Taishanese) need to (do something); have to


減

/t͡ɕi̯ɛn²¹⁴/

/t͡ɕi̯ɛn²¹⁴/

Ideogrammic compound (會意 /会意) and phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *krɯːmʔ, *ɡrɯːmʔ): semantic 水 (“water”) + phonetic 咸 (OC *ɡrɯːm, “seal”) - to seal off a stream of water, decreasing its flow. 咸 is the original character of 緘 /缄 and also serves as a semantic component.

Han compound

减
减
减
噉
咁
𡄎
緊
减

(Cantonese) to sweep (food over to another container)


滴

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *teːɡ): semantic 水 + phonetic 啻 (OC *hljeɡs).

Han compound

一滴仔

滴滴仔


漪

zh-l

漣漪／涟漪 (liányī)


焉

Possibly phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *qran, *ɢan, *qan): phonetic 正 (OC *tjeŋ, *tjeŋs) + semantic 鳥 (“bird”) ― a kind of bird.
; “in it; on it; here”
; “where; how”

Han compound

𤇟
𩾏
𭭘
𱪷
𱪽
𱫃
𲋵

The Records of the Grand Historian, by Sima Qian, c. 91 BCE

此何以稱焉？

此何以称焉？

Final modal particle, used to show a particular state or express affirmation, doubt or exclamation.


然

Characters in the same phonetic series (肰) (Zhengzhang, 2003)
Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *njen): phonetic 肰 (OC *njen, “dog meat”) + semantic 火 (“fire”) – to burn. Also ideogrammic compound (會意 /会意). The derivative 燃 (OC *njen) stands for the original word in Modern Chinese.
Note that the upper left component is analyzed as 肉 (meat), and in the component 肰 it is drawn as a tilted 月 (“moon”), appearing more like 夕 (“evening”) with an extra stroke (𱼀); compare 祭, 將.
A fusion of 如 (OC *nja, *njas) with an element *-n which has a demonstrative meaning (Schuessler, 2007).

Han compound

Since all men have these four principles in themselves, let them know to give them all their development and completion, and the issue will be like that of fire which has begun to burn, or that of a spring which has begun to find vent.

Fán yǒu sìduān yú wǒ zhě, zhī jiē kuò ér chōng zhī yǐ, ruò huǒ zhī shǐ rán, quán zhī shǐ dá.

凡有四端於我者，知皆擴而充之矣，若火之始然，泉之始達。

凡有四端于我者，知皆扩而充之矣，若火之始然，泉之始达。


爰

Ideogrammic compound (會意 /会意): 爫 (“hand, claw”) + 又 (“hand”) – the middle component has taken various forms.
Contraction of 于時 (OC *ɢʷa djɯ) or 于是 (OC *ɢʷa djeʔ) (Smith, 2012).

There exists this tremendous entity, made of neither silk nor other fabrics, yet structures and order manifest in its pattern and texture.

Yuán yǒu dà wù, fēi sī fēi bó, wén lǐ chéng zhāng.

爰有大物，非絲非帛，文理成章。

爰有大物，非丝非帛，文理成章。


爾

尔
尒
𡭗
尓
𠇍
尔
尼
呢
尔
耳
定
領
但
尔
尔

(Hokkien) that's all; nothing more; is all


甲

𠇚
𡴌
𤰒
鉀
𢓜
徦
到
仔:á

講甲真好

讲甲真好

Used after a verb or an adjective and before a degree complement.

得

used after a verb or an adjective and before a degree complement

I married my youthfulness to you; I followed you from my youth till I'm old.

Gún chiong chheng-chhun kè tī lín-tau, gún tùi siàu-liân tòe lí tòe kah lāu.

阮將青春嫁置恁兜，阮對少年跟你跟甲老。

阮将青春嫁置恁兜，阮对少年跟你跟甲老。


疇

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *du): semantic 田 (“field”) + phonetic 壽 (OC *djuʔ, *djus).
; “who”

Han compound

畴
㿧
𣋬
𤴃
𠝽
𢏚
𤲮
𠷎
𤾦
𢑔
𢑜
𤾊
𠼡
𠾉
𰣚


的

Wutunhua: -de

→ Khmer: ទី (tii)

Tang Dynasty
Thomas Barclay (missionary)

First attested in the Tang Dynasty as 底. This glyph was borrowed later to represent de, the possessive marker in Northern Chinese, superseding the earlier 底 as a way to write this word.
There are three main competing proposals for its etymology:
* Derived from the lenition of the literary genitive marker 之 (OC *tjɯ) (Demiéville, 1950; Wang, 1958; Mei, 1988), which is still preserved in many phrases, and in the written form to some extent, especially in Taiwan.
* Derived from the lenition of 者 (OC *tjaːʔ, “nominalizer > medieval possessive”) (Lü, 1943; Yuan et al., 1996; Yang, R., 2016). Note that 的 is also a nominalizer like 者 in Classical Chinese.
* Derived from the lenition of Middle Chinese demonstrative 底 (MC tejX) (Shi, 2015, 2023).
If from either of the first two etymons, possibly cognate with the demonstrative 這／这 (zhè).
Possibly cognate with the particle sense of 地, which is homophonic but now has its specialised usage.
In contemporary times it is also used to represent unrelated equivalent particles in other Chinese varieties. Examples include Hokkien ê (variously also written as 个, 之, 兮, 亓, ㄟ, possibly derived from 其 according to Douglas (1873) although the Arte de la Lengua Chiõ Chiu (1620) and Dictionario Hispanico Sinicum (1626-1642) historically used 个), Eastern Min gì (其), Wu geq (個) and Cantonese ge³ (嘅 < 個).

och-l

旳
㢩
墑
𥡦
𤾠
𬐄
ㄉ
der
个
亓
兮
ㄟ
之

may use corresponding classifier in certain contexts

Alternative form: (dated) 底

我的書／我的书

這本書是老王的。

这本书是老王的。

別開他的玩笑了。

别开他的玩笑了。

蛇的毒

人民的國家／人民的国家

Used after an attribute. Indicates that the previous word has possession of the next one. It functions like ’s in English (or like the word “of” but with the position of possessor and possessee switched). ’s; of

Alternative form: (obsolete) 底

我愛吃辣的。

我爱吃辣的。

The chrysanthemums are in bloom; some are red and some yellow.

Júhuā kāi le, yǒu hóng de, yǒu huáng de.

菊花開了，有紅的，有黃的。

菊花开了，有红的，有黄的。

Let him say what he likes; I'll just get on with my work.

他說他的，我幹我的。

他说他的，我干我的。

On the train some people were reading and some were chatting.

Huǒchē shàng kàn shū de kàn shū, liáotiān de liáotiān.

火車上看書的看書，聊天的聊天。

火车上看书的看书，聊天的聊天。

I want two of the thirty-cent ones. (i.e. two items worth thirty cents each)

我要兩個三毛的。

我要两个三毛的。

Why do you get excited for no reason at all?

無緣無故的，你著什麼急？

无缘无故的，你着什么急？

Zhèlǐ yòng bù zháo nǐ, nǐ zhǐguǎn shuì nǐ de qù.

這裡用不著你，你只管睡你的去。

这里用不着你，你只管睡你的去。

Used to form a noun phrase or nominal expression.

You've really been working hard the past few days.

你們這兩天真夠辛苦的。

你们这两天真够辛苦的。

Used at the end of a declarative sentence for emphasis.

誰買的？

谁买的？

你嗓子怎麼啞了？——唱的。

你嗓子怎么哑了？——唱的。

It was I who worked up the sketch and he who filled in the colours.

是我打的稿子，他上的色。

他是昨天進的城。

他是昨天进的城。

我是在車站打的票。

我是在车站打的票。

Used after a verb or between a verb and its object to stress an element of the sentence. It can be used with 是 (shì) to surround the stressed element.


看

Ideogrammic compound (會意 /会意): 手 (“hand”) + 目 (“eye”) – to put a hand above eyes to gaze afar.
STEDT compares it to Proto-Tibeto-Burman *ka(n/ŋ) (“to know; to see”).
Also compare Tibetan མཁན་པོ (mkhan po, “professor; abbot”) (Schuessler, 2007).


矣

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *ɢlɯʔ): phonetic 㠯 (OC *lɯʔ) + semantic 矢 (“arrow”). 矢 (OC *hliʔ) may also act as a phonetic component.
Pulleyblank (1995) tentatively suggests a connection to adverb 已 (OC *lɯʔ, “already, perfective marker”), drawing a parallel with the 了₁ (perfective particle) and 了₂ (change of state modal particle) meanings of 了 (le), but doubts that they are etymologically related, suggesting the connection may be purely semantic and for aspectual functions.

och-l

(literary) Particle expressing completion, similar to 了 (le) in Standard Mandarin.

(literary) Particle expressing exclamation, similar to 啦 (la) in Standard Mandarin.


矣

我食飽矣

我食饱矣

(Hokkien, dialectal Hakka) Sentence-final particle expressing completion, similar to 了 (le) in Standard Mandarin.


等

CJKV/code

Sino-Xenic (等):
* → Japanese: 等(とう) (tō)
* → Korean: 등(等) (deung)
* → Vietnamese: đẳng (等)

→ Proto-Turkic: *teŋ (“equal”) (see there for further descendants)

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *tɯːʔ, *tɯːŋʔ): semantic 竹 (“bamboo”) + phonetic 寺 (OC *ljɯs).
竹 here refers to the bamboo strips used for writing (e.g. grading, classification) in ancient times. 寺 (OC *ljɯs) was originally used phonetically; the character was subsequently borrowed for another word with the same meaning, but with no phonetic resemblance to 寺.
From Proto-Sino-Tibetan *s-tjaŋ (“top; to rise; to raise”) (STEDT). Endoactive of 登 (OC *tɯːŋ, “to rise; to ascend”) (Schuessler, 2007).

liushu

OC *tɯːʔ, *tɯːŋʔ

inh

the third division member of a rime doublet

重紐三等

重纽三等

Middle Chinese finals
w:Middle Chinese finals

(Chinese phonetics) one of the "divisions" of a rime table, encoding some phonological distinction; see Middle Chinese finals on Wikipedia.Wikipedia

Tonight there are wonderful performances like drama, singing, dancing, and more.

Jīntiān wǎnshàng yǒu huàjù, chànggē, tiàowǔ děng jīngcǎi biǎoyǎn.

今天晚上有話劇、唱歌、跳舞等精彩表演。

今天晚上有话剧、唱歌、跳舞等精彩表演。

In the seventh month of the first year under Qin Er Shi's rule, Chen She, with others, rebelled in Dazexiang.

Qín èrshì yuánnián qīyuè, Chén Shè děng qǐ Dàzé zhōng.

秦二世元年七月，陳涉等起大澤中。

秦二世元年七月，陈涉等起大泽中。

China has four direct-administered municipalities: Beijing, Shanghai, Tianjin, and Chongqing.

Zhōngguó yǒu Běijīng, Shànghǎi, Tiānjīn, Chóngqìng děng sì ge zhíxiáshì.

中國有北京、上海、天津、重慶等四個直轄市。

中国有北京、上海、天津、重庆等四个直辖市。

Duke of Pei then left behind his entourage and rode off by himself, before fleeing on foot with Fan Kuai, Xiahou Ying, Jin Qiang and Ji Xin, swords and shields in hand.

Pèigōng zé zhì chēqí, tuōshēn dú qí, yǔ Fán Kuài, Xiàhóu Yīng, Jìn Qiáng, Jǐ Xìn děng sì rén chí jiàn dùn bùzǒu.

沛公則置車騎，脫身獨騎，與樊噲、夏侯嬰、靳彊、紀信等四人持劍盾步走。

沛公则置车骑，脱身独骑，与樊哙、夏侯婴、靳强、纪信等四人持剑盾步走。

Particle indicating the ending of enumeration.

爾等

尔等

𠊎等

(literary or Hakka) Plural particle used after personal pronouns or nouns.


粵

Related to the particles 曰 (OC *ɢʷad) and 越 (OC *ɢʷad). Smith (2012) proposes this to be derived from the prepositional phrase *于之 (OC *ɢʷa tjɯ).

粤
⿳丿冈丂
⿳丿⿵冂米丂
𡩭
𦉿
粤
𠿋
𡩭
粤
𡩭

Yuè qí wén rì, zōngshì zhī jùn yǒu sì bǎi rén, mín xiànyí jiǔ wàn fū, yǔ jìng yǐ zhōng yú cǐ móu jìsì túgōng.

粵其聞日，宗室之俊有四百人，民獻儀九萬夫，予敬以終於此謀繼嗣圖功。

粤其闻日，宗室之俊有四百人，民献仪九万夫，予敬以终于此谋继嗣图功。

Yuè yǐ sìyuè jiǎ shēn shuò xún yǒu liù rì jǐhài, shàng jí zhōnggōng, lì lǎn tái guān.

粵以四月甲申朔旬有六日己亥，上及中宮，歷覽臺觀。

粤以四月甲申朔旬有六日己亥，上及中宫，历览台观。

Used in the beginning of a clause to express a prudent tone.

尚粵其幾，淪神域兮。

尚粤其几，沦神域兮。

A particle.
Used in the middle of a clause.


緊

Possibly from earlier 近處／近处 (gan6-2 cyu3, gan6-2 syu3, “future marker expressing the imminent aspect”) (Kataoka, 2018).

zh-l

我讀緊書。

我读紧书。

佢著緊衫。

佢着紧衫。

(Cantonese, dialectal Hakka, Nanning Pinghua) Grammatical particle used to express progressive aspect (an ongoing activity) which may undergo a change of state. Similar to the -ing form in English.


者

CJKV/code

Sino-Xenic (者):
* → Japanese: 者(しゃ) (sha)
* → Korean: 자(者) (ja)
* → Vietnamese: giả (者)

Pictogram (象形) – a sugarcane with full stems, with some points around (either leaves or drops of sweet liquid) and an open and smiling mouth at the bottom. This is the original character for either 蔗 (OC *tjaːɡs, “sugarcane”) or 煮 (OC *tjaʔ, “to boil”). Phonetically loaned for abstract meanings.
Top component 耂 is unrelated to 老, 考, and 孝.
The variant form with an additional 丶 stroke below 耂 is influenced by Shuowen, which considered 白 as the bottom component of 者.
; one who, -er, nominalizing suffix
Etymologically related to 之 (OC *tjɯ, “nominalizing, possessive particle”) and perhaps colloquial 的 (Pulleyblank, 1995).

och-l

者
⿱土⿸丿日
⿱圡⿸丿日

King Hui of Qin drew and quartered [the corpse of] Lord Shang as a warning, saying "No one shall rebel like Shang Yang!"

Qín Huì wáng chēliè Shāng jūn yǐ xùn, yuē: “Mò rú Shāngyāng fǎn zhě!”

秦惠王車裂商君以徇，曰：「莫如商鞅反者!」

秦惠王车裂商君以徇，曰：「莫如商鞅反者!」

(Classical) Used at the end of a command.

A ruler is like a boat and common people are like water.

君者，舟也。庶人者，水也。

(Classical) Topicalizer used after a term, to mark a pause before defining the term.

記者

记者

工作者

My father always said that heaven helps those who help themselves.

Wǒ fùqīn zǒngshì shuō tiān zhù zì zhù zhě.

我父親總是說天助自助者。

我父亲总是说天助自助者。

Among the citizens of the State of Song, there was one who was ploughing his field.

宋人有耕田者。

(agent suffix) -er; -ist; one who ...; person involved in; the things which ...


而

Characters in the same phonetic series (而) (Zhengzhang, 2003)
Pictogram (象形) – a beard. Original form of 耏 (OC *nɯːs, *njɯ) or 髵 (OC *njɯ). See also 冄.
; "you; your"
; "then", "and"

Han etyl

to fail to understand (literally, "to be unable to enter by finding the gate")

不得其門而入

不得其门而入

[I would] bathe in the Yi, enjoy the breeze among the rain altars, and return home singing.

浴乎沂，風乎舞雩，詠而歸。

浴乎沂，风乎舞雩，咏而归。

If there were one who did not find pleasure in killing men, all the people in the nation would look towards him with outstretched necks.

Mencius, c. 4ᵗʰ century BCE, translated based on James Legge's version

Rú yǒu bùshì shārén zhě, zé tiānxià zhī mín jiē yǐnlǐng ér wàng zhī yǐ.

如有不嗜殺人者，則天下之民皆引領而望之矣。

如有不嗜杀人者，则天下之民皆引领而望之矣。

particle between adverbial element and verb to indicate cause, purpose, or manner

particle between two verbs or verb phrases indicating that the first is used adverbially

If a man observe no rules of propriety,
Why does he not quickly die?

The Classic of Poetry, c. 11ᵗʰ – 7ᵗʰ centuries BCE, translated based on James Legge's version

人而無禮，胡不遄死？

人而无礼，胡不遄死？

Were Yan Ying alive, even if I were to be a coachman for him, there shall be where my joy and admiration lie.

Jiǎlìng Yànzǐ ér zài, yú suī wèizhī zhíbiān, suǒ xīnmù yān.

假令晏子而在，余雖爲之執鞭，所忻慕焉。

假令晏子而在，余虽为之执鞭，所忻慕焉。

modal particle indicating hypothetical condition

All of those three worthy men were heroes among humble commoners who, having not even released their wrath, saw omens auspicious to their heroic deeds and ruinous to their opponents dispatched by Heaven. Now, with me, there is about to be a fourth.

Zhanguo Ce, circa 5ᵗʰ – 3ʳᵈ centuries BCE

Cǐ sān zǐ zhě, jiē bùyī zhī shì yě; huái nù wèi fā, xiū jìn jiàng yú tiān, yǔ chén ér jiāng sì yǐ.

此三子者，皆布衣之士也；懷怒未發，休祲降於天，與臣而將四矣。

此三子者，皆布衣之士也；怀怒未发，休祲降于天，与臣而将四矣。

modal particle indicating tendency or immediate action


耳

According to Pulleyblank (1995), a contraction of 而已 (OC *njɯ lɯʔ).

My disciples, Yan's words are right. What I said was only in sport.

Èrsānzǐ, Yǎn zhī yán shìyě! Qiányán xì zhī ěr.

二三子，偃之言是也！前言戲之耳。

二三子，偃之言是也！前言戏之耳。

(literary) Phrase-final particle: merely; only; that's all


耶

Corruption of 邪 (OC *ljaː, *laː).
; question particle

They worry when they step forward, and worry when they step back; then when would they ever be happy?

Shì jìn yì yōu, tuì yì yōu; ránzé héshí ér lè yé?

是進亦憂，退亦憂；然則何時而樂耶？

是进亦忧，退亦忧；然则何时而乐耶？


聿

Pictogram (象形) or
ideogrammic compound (會意 /会意): hand (又) holding a brush (𰀁). Unrelated to 建, in which the hand is holding a pole. Partly related to 津.

sentence-initial or sentence-medial introductory particle: then; and then; thereupon


肯

Ideogrammic compound (會意 /会意): abbreviated 冎 (“bone”) + 肉 (“meat”) – meat attached to the bone. Originally written more like 肎 or 𦘫, the top component is now written 止.

Han compound

meat attached to the bone; tendon; sinew


與

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *la, *laʔ, *las): phonetic 舁 (OC *la, “raised hands”) + phonetic 牙 (OC *ŋraː). Both components are phonetic. The closest version to the original is 𦥸.
; "to be with; to associate with"
; "to give"

Han compound

与
𠔔
𠔜
𦥸
𦦲
𫝌
𫟋
𫤰
𭁇
𭁈
𭁉
𭁕
𮍫
𮍬
𮍭
𮍰

Zi Qin asked Zi Gong, saying, "When our master comes to any country, he does not fail to learn all about its government. Does he ask his information? or is it given to him?"

The Analects of Confucius, c. 475 – 221 BCE

Zǐqín wèn yú Zǐgòng yuē: “Fūzǐ zhìyú shì bāng yě, bì wén qí zhèng, qiú zhī yú? Yì yǔ zhī yú?”

子禽問於子貢曰：「夫子至於是邦也，必聞其政，求之與？抑與之與？」

子禽问于子贡曰：「夫子至于是邦也，必闻其政，求之与？抑与之与？」

(Classical, alt. form 歟／欤) Sentence-final particle used to express an exclamatory, doubtful or questioning tone


苟

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *koːʔ): semantic 艹 + phonetic 句 (OC *koː, *koːs, *kos, *ɡo) – a kind of grass, in original sense.

Han compound

For the time being, I did what I could to survive the chaotic times, and never wished to become eminent among the nobles.

227, 諸葛亮 (Zhūgě Liàng) (Zhuge Liang), 出師表

Gǒuquán xìngmìng yú luànshì, bù qiú wèndá yú zhūhóu.

苟全性命於亂世，不求聞達於諸侯。

苟全性命于乱世，不求闻达于诸侯。


莫

Pictogram (象形) – the sun (日) sinking into the bushes (屮); dusk. Original form of 暮 (OC *maːɡs, “dusk”).
The bottom was later distorted into 大.
From 無 (OC *ma, “there is no”) + distributive suffix *-k (Schuessler, 2007). For the same type of derivation, see the relationship of 有 (OC *ɢʷɯʔ, “there is”) and 或 (OC *ɡʷɯːɡ, “some”).

𦶛
𦱤
䒬
勿
嘜
麥
賣
甭
⿰勿愛*

莫做聲！

莫做声！

moʔ⁵⁻²¹ ⁽ˢ⁻⁾lɛ²¹³⁻⁵³ nˡɛi²⁴²

Don't be too polite. / Make yourself at home.

mŏ̤h-sá̤-nê / [moʔ⁵⁻²¹ ⁽ˢ⁻⁾lɛ²¹³⁻⁵³ nˡɛi²⁴²]

莫細膩。

moʔ⁵⁻²¹ ⁽ˢ⁻⁾lɛ²¹³⁻⁵³ nˡɛi²⁴²

莫细腻。

你莫腿囉。

你莫腿啰。

Don't be panicked when conflagration happens

發生火災莫驚慌

发生火灾莫惊慌

莫為盜！莫為殺人！

莫为盗！莫为杀人！

In life, fully enjoy yourself when you are delighted; do not allow an empty goblet to face the moon.

Rénshēng déyì xū jìn huān, mò shǐ jīnzūn kōng duì yuè.

人生得意須盡歡，莫使金樽空對月。

人生得意须尽欢，莫使金樽空对月。

(literary or dialectal Mandarin, dialectal Cantonese, Gan, Hakka, Eastern Min, Xiang) do not; don't; must not

particle indicating a rhetorical question


著

→ English: tio

/ʈ͡ʂaʊ̯ɻʷ⁵⁵/

/ʈ͡ʂaʊ̯ɻʷ⁵⁵/

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *taʔ, *tas, *da, *taɡ, *daɡ): semantic 艸 (“grass; plant”) + phonetic 者 (OC *tjaːʔ).
From Proto-Sino-Tibetan *s-ta-t (“to put; to place”). Cognate with Tibetan སྟད (stad, “to put on; to lay on”), སྟ་གོན (sta gon, “preparation; arrangement”), Burmese ထား (hta:, “to put; to place”). See also 署 (OC *djas, “to put, place”) (STEDT).

cog

着
着
𣋐
𣥧
囉
就
着
着

揀啊揀，揀著一個賣龍眼 / 揀啊揀，揀著一个賣龍眼 / 拣啊拣，拣着一个卖龙眼

kéng--ah kéng, kéng-tio̍h chi̍t ê bē lêng-géng

(literary) something to depend on; something to fall back on; desired end; a sense of belonging

火著得很歡。

火着得很欢。

窗簾首先著了火。

窗帘首先着了火。

to catch fire; to burn; to combust; to be ignited

著燈／着灯 [Cantonese] ― zoek⁶ dang¹ [Jyutping] ― to turn on the lights

著冷氣／着冷气 [Cantonese] ― zoek⁶ laang⁵ hei³ [Jyutping] ― to turn on the air conditioning

(Cantonese, Hokkien) to turn on; to light (a light, a machine, etc.)

(Beijing Mandarin) Particle used after verbs to denote the severity of the event.


著

着
着
𣋐
𣥧
囉
就
着
着

Particle used after some adjectives to denote comparison of levels.


葛

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *kaːd): semantic 艹 + phonetic 曷 (OC *ɡaːd).

Han compound

Pueraria lobata
Pueraria lobata#Translingual

(～國) State of Ge (a small state in modern Henan province during the Xia, Shang and Zhou dynasties)


葛

(Northern Wu, including Suzhounese) Alternative form of 個 /个 (possessive particle)


袂

University of Santo Tomas#Libraries and archives

See 𣍐／𫧃. It is historically attested for Hokkien in the Arte de la Lengua Chiõ Chiu (1620) and Dictionario Hispanico Sinicum (1626-1642) with the same usage as 𣍐／𫧃. This character is recommended for Hokkien by Taiwan's Ministry of Education (ROC MOE).

(Hokkien, historical) Alternative form of 𣍐 /𫧃


被

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *bralʔ, *brals): semantic 衣 (“clothing”) + phonetic 皮 (OC *bral).
Cognate with 披 (OC *pʰral, *pʰralʔ). The meaning of passive marker is an extension of "to wear; to be covered by something".

Han compound

被子

被褥

墊被／垫被 ― diànbèi ― mattress

2021, “記憶棉 [Pillow Talk]”, 林寶 [Jackson Lam] (lyrics), 徐浩 [Terry Chui] (music)performed by 張天賦 [MC]:

Hugging on a blanket, I thought of you in the memory foam

jan⁴ pou⁵ zoek⁶ jat¹ zoeng¹ pei⁵, zoi⁶ gei³ jik¹ min⁴ noi⁶ soeng² hei² nei⁵

人抱著一張被 在記憶棉內想起你

人抱着一张被 在记忆棉内想起你

bedding; quilt; blanket (Classifier: 床 m; 張／张 c; 領／领 mn)


言

Characters in the same phonetic series (言) (Zhengzhang, 2003)
Ideogram (指事): 言 was created by adding a horizontal stroke to the top of the ancient version of 舌 to indicate movement of the tongue. This indicates speech, where 舌 is a mouth (口) with a tongue sticking out; hence 舌 doesn't indicate the speech, but the tongue as an organ of the body. In the modern version, another horizontal stroke (then stylized as a point) was added on top and the vertical body of the tongue disappeared.
See also 音.
Shuowen erroneously analyzes the glyph as a phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声): phonetic 䇂 () + semantic 口 (“mouth”).
According to Schuessler (2007: 74) this word is derived from 語 (OC *ŋaʔ, “to speak”) + -n nominal suffix.

Han compound

語言

语言

諾言

诺言

發言

发言

謠言

谣言

to be very lengthy (of an article, essay)

洋洋萬言

洋洋万言

我能留個言嗎？

我能留个言吗？

words; language appropriate to the occasion

陟彼南山，言采其蕨

A meaningless sentence-initial mood particle.


誒

→ English: E

诶
诶
诶
诶
诶
诶
诶


誒

诶
诶
诶
诶
诶
诶
诶

Synonym of 兮 (xī, “an exclamatory particle”)


誒

诶
诶
诶
诶
诶
诶
诶

2019, 李敏敏 (Li Minmin), 《台山方言助词研究》 [A Study on Auxiliary Word in Taishan Dialect] (thesis), Guangdong: Jinan University, page 6

我吃誒飯囉。

我吃诶饭啰。

2019, 李敏敏 (Li Minmin), 《台山方言助词研究》 [A Study on Auxiliary Word in Taishan Dialect] (thesis), Guangdong: Jinan University, page 7

㑢去誒囉。

㑢去诶啰。

(Siyi Yue) Used after a verb to indicate perfective aspect (action completion).


諸

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *tjaː, *tja): semantic 言 + phonetic 者 (OC *tjaːʔ).
諸 (*ta, "many, all") is considered a dependent (non-adjunctive) pronoun, gradually replacing 多 (*tlai, “many, all”). The two may be cognate, and it may be conceivable that 諸 had branched off from 多 in the sense "all" as the pre-nominal proclitic with the loss of the final *-i in 多.
Probably also cognate with 都 (dū, “all”).

Han compound

諸侯

诸侯

諸位

诸位

諸子百家

诸子百家

do not do anything today (used in Chinese almanacs)

諸事不宜

诸事不宜

many; each; every; all (forming plurals; especially for persons to whom respect is due)

日居月諸、照臨下土

日居月诸、照临下土

The master's mode of asking information! - is it not different from that of other men?

fūzǐ zhī qiú zhī yě, qí zhū yì hū rén zhī qiú zhī yǔ

夫子之求之也，其諸異乎人之求之與

夫子之求之也，其诸异乎人之求之与


豈

Possibly a variation of 壴 with the top part modified. May have been the original form of 凱 (“music of triumph”).

Might Your Majesty graciously decide so?

天王豈辱裁之？

天王岂辱裁之？

(dated) possibly; perhaps (modal particle indicating tentativeness)


這

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *ŋrans): semantic 辶 (“walk”) + phonetic 言 (OC *ŋan).
The character was originally a verb meaning “to meet”, whose modern pronunciation is yàn. It was later borrowed for the proximal demonstrative “this/here”, by a confusion in medieval handwriting with 遮 (zhē, “this”).
First attested in the Tang dynasty; etymology unclear. Proposed etymologies:
* From 者 (OC *tjaːʔ, “one which”) (Lü, 1985). Wang (1990) notes that 者 always occurs after what is referred to, where as 這 always before.
*: 者 (OC *tjaːʔ, “one which”) > 者 (MC tsyaeX, “this (possessive case)”) > 者 (MC tsyaeX, “this (general demonstrative)”) > Mandarin 這 /这 (zhè).
* From 之 (OC *tjɯ, “this; it”) (Wang, 1990). Norman (1988) notes that this derivation would be phonologically problematic.

ltc-l

这
遮
者
只
拓
J
迓
邇
即
此
这
这

filler particle usually used when the speaker is tongue-tied.


逝

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *ɦljeds): semantic 辵 (“walking”) + phonetic 折 (OC *l'eːl, *ʔljed, *ɦljed)

Han compound

(literary) Sentence-initial exclamatory particle.


過

CJKV/code

Sino-Xenic (過):
* → Japanese: 過(か) (ka)
* → Korean: 과(過) (gwa)
* → Vietnamese: quá (過, “too; to exceed”), qua (過, “to cross; through; across”)

→ Proto-Hmong-Mien: *KʷajH (“to cross”)

White Hmong: dhau

→ Proto-Tai: *kwaːᴮ (“to cross over”)

Lao: ກວ່າ (kuā, “than; more than”)

desc

Shan: ၵႂႃႇ (kwàa, “go; work, run (as an engine)”)

Thai: กว่า (gwàa, “than; more than; over; go; overflow; pass”)

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *kloːl, *kloːls): semantic 辵 (“walk”) + phonetic 咼 (OC *kʰʷroːl).
From Proto-Sino-Tibetan *m/s-ka-j (“to go, to stride”) (STEDT). Related to 跨 (OC *kʰʷraː, *kʰʷraːʔ, *kʰʷraːs, *kʰʷaːs, “to pass over”) and 騎 (OC *ɡral, *ɡrals, “to ride”).

och-l

ngo⁵ seng⁴ jat⁶ dou¹ wui⁵ haang⁴ gwo³ ni¹ gaan¹ si⁶ do¹.

我成日都會行過呢間士多。

我成日都会行过呢间士多。

verbal complement
indicating passing by; over; by

你去過中國嗎？

你去过中国吗？

nei⁵ jau⁵ mou⁵ heoi³ gwo³ hoeng¹ gong² aa³?

你有冇去過香港啊？

你有冇去过香港啊？

nei⁵ gin³ gwo³ ngo⁵ go³ neoi⁵ pang⁴ jau⁵ mei⁶ aa³?

你見過我個女朋友未呀？

你见过我个女朋友未呀？

particle indicating that an event or state has occurred already; ever; already

I picked the wrong topic for the essay, so I have to write it all over again.

ngo⁵ zok³ man⁴⁻² gaan² co³ zo² tai⁴ muk⁶, jiu³ cung⁴ tau⁴ se² gwo³.

我作文揀錯咗題目，要從頭寫過。

我作文拣错咗题目，要从头写过。

(Cantonese, Gan) particle indicating repetition of an event; again


邪

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *ljaː, *laː): phonetic 牙 (OC *ŋraː) + semantic 邑 (“town; city”).
The semantic component suggests that this character was originally used in a place name, which Shuowen suggests to be 琅邪. It was later borrowed for other meanings, the most prominent being “wrong; evil” (originally written as 衺).

Han compound

(～母) (Chinese linguistics) the Middle Chinese initial of 邪 (MC yae)


里

(Xiang) Particle indicating the word preceding it is used as an adverb.


開

CJKV/code

Sino-Xenic (開):
* → Japanese: 開(かい) (kai)
* → Vietnamese: khai (開)

→ Lao: ໄຂ (khai, “open”)

→ Thai: ไข (kǎi, “open”)

→ Vietnamese: khơi

→ Zhuang: hai (“open”)

Ideogrammic compound (會意 /会意): 門 (“door”) + 一 (“latch and/or wooden pole that shuts a door”) + 廾 (“a pair of hands”) — a pair of hands opening a latched door. 一 and 廾 are combined into 开 since the Small Seal script; however, in the conservative variant 𨵑, the two hands and the latch are well visible.
Compare 闢. See also 關, in which the door is kept shut by two wooden poles.
According to STEDT, from Proto-Sino-Tibetan *m/s-k(w)a-j (“mouth; opening; spread; door; face; jaw”). Cognate with 戶 (OC *ɡʷaːʔ, “door”), Tibetan ཁ (kha, “mouth”), Tibetan སྒོ (sgo, “door”).
The word is possibly a colloquial variant of 闓 (OC *ŋ̊ʰɯːlʔ, *ŋ̊ʰɯːls) (Schuessler, 2007). Proto-Mien *kʰu̯ɔiᴬ (“to open”) (whence Iu Mien kʰɔi¹) and Thai ไข (kǎi) are Chinese loans (Ratliff, 2010).

och-l

闓 (OC *ŋ̊ʰɯːlʔ, *ŋ̊ʰɯːls)

开
𫔭
䦐
𨴉
𨳩
𨴂
𨵹
𨶘
𨵑
开
K
开
开
嗨

nei⁵ jau⁵ mou⁵ sik⁶ hoi¹ di¹ mat¹ je⁵ joek⁶ gaa³?

你有冇食開啲乜嘢藥㗎？

你有冇食开啲乜嘢药㗎？


閣

阁
阁
擱
佫
故
復
過
更
果
固
各
卻
革
阁
𡁤
咯

GT - General Taiwanese (no specific region identified)

(Taiwanese Hokkien) on the contrary; to the contrary; instead; rather; as a matter of fact


阿

→ English: Ah

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *qaːl): semantic 阜 + phonetic 可 (OC *kʰaːlʔ): Originally meaning a big mound.
From Proto-Sino-Tibetan *ʔa(ŋ/k)- (noun prefix) (STEDT). Compare Burmese အ- (a.-, “idem”) (Schuessler, 2007, p. 149).
; “atto-”

阿胡拉·馬茲達

Āhúlā Mǎzīdá

阿胡拉·马兹达

Āhúlā Mǎzīdá

Alternative forms: (dated) 亞 /亚, (Hong Kong Cantonese neologism) 牙

阿爸

阿扁

《阿Q正傳》

《阿Q正传》

A Zhen fell in love with A Qiang / One night under a starlit sky

2016, 仁科, 茂涛 (lyrics and music), 《阿珍爱上了阿强》, performed by 五条人

Ā Zhēn àishàng le Ā Qiáng / zài yīge yǒu xīngxīng de yèwǎn

阿珍愛上了阿強 / 在一個有星星的夜晚

阿珍爱上了阿强 / 在一个有星星的夜晚

Prefix used in front of the surname or last character of someone’s given name to express familiarity or friendliness (traditionally used in rural or southern Chinese dialects).


額

(Shanghainese) Alternative form of 個 /个 (“possessive particle”)


鳥

→ Thai: เจี๊ยว (jíao)

/ni̯aʊ̯ɻʷ²¹⁴/

/n̠ʲi̯ɒu̯⁴¹/

/ni̯aʊ̯ɻʷ²¹⁴/

/n̠ʲi̯ɒu̯⁴¹/

Characters in the same phonetic series (鳥) (Zhengzhang, 2003)
Pictogram (象形): a bird with a dangling tail.
Compare 烏, which is very similar, of similar origin, and 隹, which originated from a similar image of a bird, but is today rather more abstract and less recognizable. Compare to Egyptian 𓄿
Originally pronounced with a /t-/ initial (compare 島 (OC *tuːwʔ, “island”)). In many dialects, it changed to a /n-/ initial to avoid homophony with the vulgar word 屌 (diǎo, “penis”), which may ultimately have developed from the sense “bird”. Birds/fowl are characteristically associated with Chinese slang for genitalia; compare 雀 (“sparrow > penis”) and 雞 (“chicken > penis”).
Alternatively, Schuessler (2007) hypothesised that the /n-/ initial form for “bird” may be unrelated to the /t-/ form. Instead, it may be connected with the Tai-Kadai word for bird; compare Proto-Tai *C̬.nokᴰ (“bird”), whence Thai นก (nók).
The /t-/ form may be derived from Proto-Sino-Tibetan *daw (“bird”), cognate with Proto-Karen *thoᴮ (“bird”) and Proto-Bodo-Garo *tao² (“bird”).

Han etyl

我才不鳥他。

我才不鸟他。

(slang, dialectal) to pay attention; to heed; to take notice of


麼

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声, OC *maːlʔ): phonetic 麻 (OC *mraːl) + semantic 幺 (“small, tiny”).
From 物 (MC mjut, “thing”), from 什物 (MC dzyip mjut, “miscellaneous items”) > 什麼／什么 (shénme) (Norman, 1988; Zhang, 1982).

ltc-l

么
麽
庅
么
麽
庅
么
麽
庅
嗎:má
嘛:má
麽
麽
庅
尛
𡭚
𡭯
𡮡
𤹳
么
麽
乜
嗎

As for her... just let her leave if she wants to. (I don't really care.)

她麼，想走就讓她走吧。

她么，想走就让她走吧。

A particle placed after the topic of a compound sentence, used to express tactfulness.

什麼

什么

怎麼

怎么

這麼

这么

多麼

多么

A suffix for forming pronouns or adverbs.


麼

你記得我麼？

你记得我么？

2003, 容祖兒, 習慣失戀

lei⁵ so² dong¹ jin⁴ ngo⁵ dik¹ co³, ling⁶ nei⁵ fat¹ jin⁴ lei⁴ hoi¹, jaa⁵ si⁶ ngo⁵ co³ mo¹

理所當然我的錯 令你忽然離開 也是我錯麼

2003, 容祖兒, 習慣失戀

理所当然我的错 令你忽然离开 也是我错么

2020, “拼命無恙 [In a Funk]”, 林夕 [Albert Leung] (lyrics), 林家謙 [Terence Lam] (music)performed by 林家謙 [Terence Lam]:

ngo⁵ fong³ haa⁶ nei⁵ koek³ mei⁶ fong³ dai¹ seoi⁴ mo¹

我放下你卻未放低誰麼

我放下你却未放低谁么

2020, 南华潮剧社 Nam Hwa Opera, 1h22m50s from the start, in 苏六娘 The Tale Of Su Liu Niang:

"Mother, how could you bear to let me marry into the Yang family?"

「母親，你真的，忍心將兒嫁到楊家麼？」

「母亲，你真的，忍心将儿嫁到杨家么？」

Alternative form of 嗎 /吗 (“final interrogative particle”)


齁

(Taiwanese Mandarin, Taiwanese Hokkien) Alternative form of 乎 (hohⁿ, “sentence-final particle”)


der

超容易der！

(Internet slang, cute-sounding) Alternative pronunciation of the particle 的.


(Hong Kong Cantonese, Internet slang, neologism) A negation particle


ed

覆ed [Hong Kong Cantonese] ― fuk¹ dat⁴ [Jyutping] ― replied

fol ed [Hong Kong Cantonese] ― fo¹ dat⁴ [Jyutping] ― followed

J ed [Hong Kong Cantonese] ― zei¹ dat⁴ [Jyutping] ― jerked off; wanked off

(Hong Kong Cantonese, neologism) Used to denote an action which has been completed.


の

Pseudo-Japonism, Orthographic borrowing from Japanese possessive marker の (no).

朱力亞の手作包, →ISBN

打造個人化の網站 XOOPS 2.3.x 完全實戰手冊, →ISBN

梅問題の超質感商品攝影手法大公開, →ISBN


の

決戰時空の塔


傻×

Used to replace offensive characters. Usually read as 叉 (chā).


不能

CJKV/code

Sino-Xenic (不能):
* → Japanese: 不(ふ)能(のう) (funō)
* → Korean: 불능(不能) (bulleung)

/pu⁵¹ nɤŋ³⁵/

/pɐt̚⁵ nɐŋ²¹/

/puk̚²⁻⁴ leŋ⁵⁵/

/pu⁵¹ nɤŋ³⁵/

/pɐt̚⁵ nɐŋ²¹/

/puk̚²⁻⁴ leŋ⁵⁵/

The slang usage is a mimicry of Japanese syntax.

You can't talk reason with crazy people.

Rén shì bùnéng gēn fēngzi jiǎngdàolǐ de.

人是不能跟瘋子講道理的。

人是不能跟疯子讲道理的。

你是不能逃過處分的。

你是不能逃过处分的。

Nǐ bùnéng bǎ jiǔ mài gěi wèichéngniánrén.

你不能把酒賣給未成年人。

你不能把酒卖给未成年人。


來著

/laɪ̯³⁵ ɖ͡ʐ̥ə³/

/laɪ̯³⁵ ɖ͡ʐ̥ə³/

She moved house only last week, how can she be travelling now?

Tā shàng ge xīngqī hái bānjiā láizhe, zěnme huì zài lǚyóu ne?

她上個星期還搬家來著，怎麼會在旅遊呢？

她上个星期还搬家来着，怎么会在旅游呢？

Wǒ wàngjì zěnme pīnxiě nǐ de míngzì láizhe.

我忘記怎麼拼寫你的名字來著。

我忘记怎么拼写你的名字来着。

What did I tell you? (i.e. I told you so!)

我說什麼來著？

我说什么来着？

(colloquial) Used after a verb to indicate a past action or state.


lor

(Cantonese) Alternative form of 囉 /啰 (particle)


wor

(Cantonese) Alternative form of 喎 /㖞 (particle)


一樣

/i⁵⁵⁻³⁵ jɑŋ⁵¹/

/jɐt̚⁵ jœːŋ²²/

/it̚² i̯oŋ⁵⁵/

/it̚³²⁻⁴ iũ³³/

/it̚⁵⁻²⁴ iũ⁴¹/

/it̚³²⁻⁴ iũ²²/

/it̚³²⁻⁵ iaŋ²²/

/t͡sit̚²⁴⁻² iũ⁴¹/

/t͡sit̚⁴⁻³² iũ³³/

/t͡sit̚⁴⁻³² iũ²²/

/t͡sit̚¹²¹⁻²¹ iɔ̃²²/

/t͡sek̚⁴⁻² ĩõ¹¹/

/t͡sek̚⁴⁻² ĩẽ¹¹/

/iɪʔ³³ ɦiã⁴⁴/

/iɪʔ⁵⁵ ɦiã⁵¹/

/i⁵⁵⁻³⁵ jɑŋ⁵¹/

/jɐt̚⁵ jœːŋ²²/

/it̚² i̯oŋ⁵⁵/

/it̚³²⁻⁴ iũ³³/

/it̚⁵⁻²⁴ iũ⁴¹/

/it̚³²⁻⁴ iũ²²/

/it̚³²⁻⁵ iaŋ²²/

/t͡sit̚²⁴⁻² iũ⁴¹/

/t͡sit̚⁴⁻³² iũ³³/

/t͡sit̚⁴⁻³² iũ²²/

/t͡sit̚¹²¹⁻²¹ iɔ̃²²/

/t͡sek̚⁴⁻² ĩõ¹¹/

/t͡sek̚⁴⁻² ĩẽ¹¹/

/iɪʔ³³ ɦiã⁴⁴/

/iɪʔ⁵⁵ ɦiã⁵¹/

He spewed forth abuse like a machine gun.

Tā de màshēng xiàng jīguānqiāng yīyàng chuán lái.

他的罵聲像機關槍一樣傳來。

他的骂声像机关枪一样传来。

For him, this kind of manual labour is a piece of cake.

Duì tā láishuō, zhè diǎn tǐlìhuó gēn báiwánr yīyàng.

對他來說，這點體力活跟白玩兒一樣。

对他来说，这点体力活跟白玩儿一样。


不得

/pɐt̚⁵ tɐk̚⁵/

/put̚³²⁻⁴ tiɪk̚³²/

/put̚³²⁻⁵ tiɪk̚³²/

/pɐt̚⁵ tɐk̚⁵/

/put̚³²⁻⁴ tiɪk̚³²/

/put̚³²⁻⁵ tiɪk̚³²/

/pɐt̚⁵ tɐk̚⁵/

不得亂扔垃圾。

不得乱扔垃圾。

不得隨地吐痰。

不得随地吐痰。

不得躺臥。

不得躺卧。

未成年人不得入內。

未成年人不得入内。

非緊急情況不得停留。

非紧急情况不得停留。

(auxiliary) must not; should not; not be allowed


不可

/pu⁵¹ kʰɤ²¹⁴⁻²¹⁽⁴⁾/

/pɐt̚⁵ hɔː³⁵/

/put̚³²⁻⁴ kʰo⁵³/

/put̚³²⁻⁴ kʰɤ⁴¹/

/put̚³²⁻⁵ kʰo⁵³/

/put̚⁵⁻²⁴ kʰɔ̃⁵⁵⁴/

/puk̚²⁻⁴ kʰo⁵²⁻²¹/

/pu⁵¹ kʰɤ²¹⁴⁻²¹⁽⁴⁾/

/pɐt̚⁵ hɔː³⁵/

/put̚³²⁻⁴ kʰo⁵³/

/put̚³²⁻⁴ kʰɤ⁴¹/

/put̚³²⁻⁵ kʰo⁵³/

/put̚⁵⁻²⁴ kʰɔ̃⁵⁵⁴/

/puk̚²⁻⁴ kʰo⁵²⁻²¹/

你非去不可。

頭孢不可與酒同服。

头孢不可与酒同服。

鄙人以為這樣做萬萬不可。

鄙人以为这样做万万不可。

Those who have power cannot be wilful. (Power is not to be used arbitrarily.)

有權不可任性。

有权不可任性。


定定

/tiŋ⁵¹⁻⁵³ tiŋ⁵¹/

/tɪŋ²² tɪŋ²²/

/tiã²²⁻²¹ tiã²²/

/tiã⁴¹⁻²² tiã⁴¹/

/tiã²²⁻²¹ tiã²²/

/tiã³³⁻¹¹ tiã³³/

/tiã³³⁻²¹ tiã³³/

/tiŋ⁵¹⁻⁵³ tiŋ⁵¹/

/tɪŋ²² tɪŋ²²/

/tiã²²⁻²¹ tiã²²/

/tiã⁴¹⁻²² tiã⁴¹/

/tiã²²⁻²¹ tiã²²/

/tiã³³⁻¹¹ tiã³³/

/tiã³³⁻²¹ tiã³³/

nei⁵ co⁵ ding⁶ ding⁶ hai² dou⁶, m⁴ hou² zau¹ wai⁴ zau².

你坐定定喺度，唔好周圍走。

你坐定定喺度，唔好周围走。

(Cantonese, Southern Min) calmly; steadily


定定

/tiŋ⁵¹⁻⁵³ tiŋ⁵¹/

/tɪŋ²² tɪŋ²²/

/tiã²²⁻²¹ tiã²²/

/tiã⁴¹⁻²² tiã⁴¹/

/tiã²²⁻²¹ tiã²²/

/tiã³³⁻¹¹ tiã³³/

/tiã³³⁻²¹ tiã³³/

/tiŋ⁵¹⁻⁵³ tiŋ⁵¹/

/tɪŋ²² tɪŋ²²/

/tiã²²⁻²¹ tiã²²/

/tiã⁴¹⁻²² tiã⁴¹/

/tiã²²⁻²¹ tiã²²/

/tiã³³⁻¹¹ tiã³³/

/tiã³³⁻²¹ tiã³³/

(Hakka, at the end of a phrase) that's all; nothing more


出去

/ʈ͡ʂʰu⁵⁵ t͡ɕʰy⁵¹/

/ʈ͡ʂʰu⁵⁵ t͡ɕʰy²/

/ʈ͡ʂʰu²⁴ t͡ɕʰi²⁴/

/t͡sʰɵt̚⁵ hɵy̯³³/

/t͡sʰɨt̚⁵ t͡ɕʰie²/

/t͡sʰuəʔ²⁻⁵⁴ kʰəʔ²/

/t͡sʰuk̚²⁻⁴ kʰɯ²¹³/

/t͡sʰuk̚²⁻⁴ kʰu²¹³/

/t͡sʰəʔ³³ t͡ɕʰi⁴⁴/

/ʈ͡ʂʰu⁵⁵ t͡ɕʰy⁵¹/

/ʈ͡ʂʰu⁵⁵ t͡ɕʰy²/

/ʈ͡ʂʰu²⁴ t͡ɕʰi²⁴/

/t͡sʰɵt̚⁵ hɵy̯³³/

/t͡sʰɨt̚⁵ t͡ɕʰie²/

/t͡sʰuəʔ²⁻⁵⁴ kʰəʔ²/

/t͡sʰuk̚²⁻⁴ kʰɯ²¹³/

/t͡sʰuk̚²⁻⁴ kʰu²¹³/

/t͡sʰəʔ³³ t͡ɕʰi⁴⁴/

丟出去

丢出去

開出去

开出去

to be unable to get married (to anyone); to be left on the shelf

嫁不出去

Used to modify a verb to indicate an outward direction; always appended to the end of a verb.


分之

/fən⁵⁵ ʈ͡ʂʐ̩⁵⁵/

/fən⁵⁵ ɖ͡ʐ̥ʐ̩²/

/fɐn²² t͡siː⁵⁵/

/fɐn⁵⁵ t͡siː⁵⁵/

/hun⁴⁴⁻²² t͡si⁴⁴/

/hun⁴⁴⁻²² t͡si⁴⁴/

/hun⁴⁴⁻³³ t͡si⁴⁴/

/hun⁴⁴⁻³³ t͡si⁴⁴/

/vən²² t͡sz̩⁴⁴/

/fən⁵⁵ ʈ͡ʂʐ̩⁵⁵/

/fən⁵⁵ ɖ͡ʐ̥ʐ̩²/

/fɐn²² t͡siː⁵⁵/

/fɐn⁵⁵ t͡siː⁵⁵/

/hun⁴⁴⁻²² t͡si⁴⁴/

/hun⁴⁴⁻²² t͡si⁴⁴/

/hun⁴⁴⁻³³ t͡si⁴⁴/

/hun⁴⁴⁻³³ t͡si⁴⁴/

/vən²² t͡sz̩⁴⁴/

三分之一

三分之二

四分之一

百分之八十

A way to express fractions and percentages.


𨶙

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声): semantic 門 (“door”) + phonetic 能. Compare 𨳊, 𨳍, 閪／𲈹.

Han compound

(Cantonese, vulgar) Alternative form of 撚 (“penis; expletive particle”)


不到

/pu⁵¹⁻³⁵ tɑʊ̯⁵¹/

/b̥u tɑʊ̯⁵¹/

/pɐt̚⁵ tou̯³³⁻³⁵/

/pu⁵¹⁻³⁵ tɑʊ̯⁵¹/

/b̥u tɑʊ̯⁵¹/

/pɐt̚⁵ tou̯³³⁻³⁵/

我看不到你。

晚來買不到

晚来买不到


㗑

(literary) an oboe-like double reed wind instrument made of bamboo, used by the Li people of Hainan, China (similar to a suona)


不成

/pu⁵¹ ʈ͡ʂʰɤŋ³⁵/

/pɐt̚⁵ sɪŋ²¹/

/pu⁵¹ ʈ͡ʂʰɤŋ³⁵/

/pɐt̚⁵ sɪŋ²¹/

(literary) to not form; to not constitute


不成

/pu⁵¹ ʈ͡ʂʰɤŋ³⁵/

/pɐt̚⁵ sɪŋ²¹/

/pu⁵¹ ʈ͡ʂʰɤŋ³⁵/

/pɐt̚⁵ sɪŋ²¹/


𠻗

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 /形声): semantic 口 + phonetic 离 (OC *rel, *r̥ʰel).